Enhanced expectancies facilitate golf putting

Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, development, and health

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Dopamine, learning and motivation.

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Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning

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The automaticity of complex motor skill learning as a function of attentional focus

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A Comprehensive Review of the Placebo Effect: Recent Advances and Current Thought

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Response expectancy as a determinant of experience and behavior.

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The Relation of Self-Efficacy Measures to Sport Performance: A Meta-Analytic Review

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Dopamine and adaptive memory

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Cortical and basal ganglia contributions to habit learning and automaticity

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Effects of Expectation on Placebo-Induced Dopamine Release in Parkinson Disease

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Feedback After Good Trials Enhances Learning

Chiviacowsky, S., & Wulf, G. (2007) · Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport · doi:10.1080/02701367.2007.10599402 · Cited by 265 · see citing works

External attentional focus enhances movement automatization: A comprehensive test of the constrained action hypothesis

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The Effect of Manipulated Self-Efficacy on Perceived and Sustained Effort

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Social-comparative feedback affects motor skill learning

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Expectation modulates the response to subthalamic nucleus stimulation in Parkinsonian patients

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Self-Controlled Learning: The Importance of Protecting Perceptions of Competence

Chiviacowsky, S., Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2012) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00458 · Cited by 149 · see citing works

Knowledge of results after relatively good trials enhances self-efficacy and motor learning

Saemi, E., Porter, J. M., Varzaneh, A. G., Zarghami, M., & Maleki, F. (2012) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2011.12.008 · Cited by 145 · see citing works

The impact of self-as-a-model interventions on children's self-regulation of learning and swimming performance

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Positive social-comparative feedback enhances motor learning in children

Ávila, L. T. G., Chiviacowsky, S., Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2012) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2012.07.001 · Cited by 140 · see citing works

Altering mindset can enhance motor learning in older adults.

Wulf, G., Chiviacowsky, S., & Lewthwaite, R. (2012) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0025718 · Cited by 139 · see citing works

Effortless Motor Learning?: An External Focus of Attention Enhances Movement Effectiveness and Efficiency

Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2010) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/9780262013840.003.0004 · Cited by 131 · see citing works

Plastic Corticostriatal Circuits for Action Learning

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Additive benefits of external focus and enhanced performance expectancy for motor learning

Pascua, L. A. M., Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2015) · Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.1080/02640414.2014.922693 · Cited by 117 · see citing works

Normative Feedback Effects on Learning a Timing Task

Wulf, G., Chiviacowsky, S., & Lewthwaite, R. (2010) · Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport · doi:10.1080/02701367.2010.10599703 · Cited by 116 · see citing works

Suggestion, Cognition, and Behavior

Michael, R. B., Garry, M., & Kirsch, I. (2012) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721412446369 · Cited by 99 · see citing works

Knowledge of Results After Good Trials Enhances Learning in Older Adults

Chiviacowsky, S., Wulf, G., Wally, R., & Borges, T. (2009) · Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport · doi:10.1080/02701367.2009.10599606 · Cited by 91 · see citing works

Feedback About More Accurate Versus Less Accurate Trials

Badami, R., VaezMousavi, M., Wulf, G., & Namazizadeh, M. (2012) · Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport · doi:10.1080/02701367.2012.10599850 · Cited by 84 · see citing works

Enhanced expectancies improve movement efficiency in runners

Stoate, I., Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2012) · Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.1080/02640414.2012.671533 · Cited by 84 · see citing works

Get Me Out of This Slump! Visual Illusions Improve Sports Performance

Witt, J. K., Linkenauger, S. A., & Proffitt, D. R. (2012) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797611428810 · Cited by 73 · see citing works

Motor learning through a motivational lens

WULF, R. L. W. I. A. G. (2012) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203133712-21 · Cited by 72 · see citing works

Visual illusions can facilitate sport skill learning

Chauvel, G., Wulf, G., & Maquestiaux, F. (2015) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-014-0744-9 · Cited by 71 · see citing works

Does self-efficacy mediate transfer effects in the learning of easy and difficult motor skills?

Stevens, D., Anderson, D. I., O’Dwyer, N. J., & Mark Williams, A. (2012) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2012.03.014 · Cited by 69 · see citing works

The self: Your own worst enemy? A test of the self-invoking trigger hypothesis

McKay, B., Wulf, G., Lewthwaite, R., & Nordin, A. (2015) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2014.997765 · Cited by 66 · see citing works

Success modulates consolidation of a visuomotor adaptation task.

Trempe, M., Sabourin, M., & Proteau, L. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0024883 · Cited by 65 · see citing works

The impact of visual illusions on perception, action planning, and motor performance

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The sweetest pill to swallow: how patient neurobiology can be harnessed to maximise placebo effects.

Jubb, J., & Bensing, J. (2013) · Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.09.006 · Cited by 57 · see citing works

Feedback About More Accurate Versus Less Accurate Trials: Differential Effects on Self-Confidence and Activation

Badami, R., VaezMousavi, M., Wulf, G., & Namazizadeh, M. (2012) · Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport · doi:10.5641/027013612800745275 · Cited by 44 · see citing works

Enhanced Expectancies Improve Performance Under Pressure

McKay, B., Lewthwaite, R., & Wulf, G. (2012) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00008 · Cited by 42 · see citing works

Motor skill consolidation

Trempe, M. (2012) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203133712-22 · Cited by 9 · see citing works

Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning

Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2016) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-015-0999-9 · Cited by 1,238 · see citing works

Optimizing motivation and attention for motor performance and learning

Lewthwaite, R., & Wulf, G. (2017) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.04.005 · Cited by 137 · see citing works

Triple play: Additive contributions of enhanced expectancies, autonomy support, and external attentional focus to motor learning

Wulf, G., Lewthwaite, R., Cardozo, P. L., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2017) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2016.1276204 · Cited by 109 · see citing works

Good-vs. poor-trial feedback in motor learning: The role of self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation across levels of task difficulty

Abbas, Z. A., & North, J. S. (2017) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2017.09.009 · Cited by 91 · see citing works

Coaching cues in amateur boxing: An analysis of ringside feedback provided between rounds of competition

Halperin, I., Chapman, D. W., Martin, D. T., Abbiss, C. R., & Wulf, G. (2016) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2016.04.003 · Cited by 59 · see citing works

Onward and upward: Optimizing motor performance

Chua, L.-K., Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2018) · Human Movement Science · doi:10.1016/j.humov.2018.05.006 · Cited by 62 · see citing works

Enhancing performance expectancies through positive comparative feedback facilitates the learning of basketball free throw in children

Gonçalves, G. S., Cardozo, P. L., Valentini, N. C., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2018) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.03.001 · Cited by 53 · see citing works

Estimating the Replicability of Sports and Exercise Science Research

Murphy, J., Caldwell, A. R., Mesquida, C., Ladell, A. J. M., Martínez, A. E., Tual, A., Denys, A. T., Cameron, B., Hooren, B. V., Parr, B., et al. (2025) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-025-02201-w · Cited by 48 · see citing works

A systematic review of motivational and attentional variables on children’s fundamental movement skill development: the OPTIMAL theory

Simpson, T., Ellison, P., Carnegie, E., & Marchant, D. (2020) · International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1750984x.2020.1809007 · Cited by 44 · see citing works

Difficulty is a real challenge: A perspective on the role of cognitive effort in motor skill learning.

Hodges, N. J., & Lohse, K. R. (2020) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2020.08.006 · Cited by 35 · see citing works

Enhancing performance expectancies through visual illusions facilitates motor learning in children

Bahmani, M., Wulf, G., Ghadiri, F., Karimi, S., & Lewthwaite, R. (2017) · Human Movement Science · doi:10.1016/j.humov.2017.07.001 · Cited by 34 · see citing works

Enhanced or diminished expectancies in golf putting – Which actually affects performance?

Ziv, G., Ochayon, M., & Lidor, R. (2018) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.10.003 · Cited by 33 · see citing works

The Influence of External Focus Instruction Characteristics on Children’s Motor Performance

Marchant, D., Griffiths, G., Partridge, J. A., Belsley, L., & Porter, J. M. (2018) · Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport · doi:10.1080/02701367.2018.1512075 · Cited by 31 · see citing works

A tale of too many tasks: task fragmentation in motor learning and a call for model task paradigms

Ranganathan, R., Tomlinson, A. D., Lokesh, R., Lin, T.-H., & Patel, P. (2020) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-020-05908-6 · Cited by 31 · see citing works

Meta-analyzing enhanced expectancies on motor learning: positive effects but methodological concerns

Bacelar, M. F. B., Parma, J. O., Murrah, W. M., & Miller, M. W. (2022) · International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1750984x.2022.2042839 · Cited by 29 · see citing works

Practical Training Strategies to Apply Neuro-Mechanistic Motor Learning Principles to Facilitate Adaptations Towards Injury-Resistant Movement in Youth

Diekfuss, J. A., Bonnette, S., Hogg, J. A., Riehm, C. D., Grooms, D. R., Singh, H., Anand, M., Slutsky‐Ganesh, A. B., Wilkerson, G. B., & Myer, G. D. (2020) · Journal of Science in Sport and Exercise · doi:10.1007/s42978-020-00083-0 · Cited by 31 · see citing works

Balancing Our Perceptions of the Efficacy of Success-Based Feedback Manipulations on Motor Learning

Ong, N. T., & Hodges, N. J. (2017) · Journal of Motor Behavior · doi:10.1080/00222895.2017.1383227 · Cited by 28 · see citing works

Relatedness support enhances motor learning

Gonzalez, D. H., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2016) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-016-0833-7 · Cited by 27 · see citing works

Reaction time and working memory in gamers and non-gamers

Ziv, G., Lidor, R., & Levin, O. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-10986-3 · Cited by 29 · see citing works

Targeted Application of Motor Learning Theory to Leverage Youth Neuroplasticity for Enhanced Injury-Resistance and Exercise Performance: OPTIMAL PREP

Diekfuss, J. A., Grooms, D. R., Hogg, J. A., Singh, H., Slutsky‐Ganesh, A. B., Bonnette, S., Riehm, C. D., Anand, M., Nissen, K. S., Wilkerson, G. B., et al. (2021) · Journal of Science in Sport and Exercise · doi:10.1007/s42978-020-00085-y · Cited by 27 · see citing works

Influence of visual illusion and attentional focusing instruction in motor performance

Marchant, D., Carnegie, E., Wood, G., & Ellison, P. (2018) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2018.1441165 · Cited by 23 · see citing works

Positive feedback enhances motivation and skill learning in adolescents

Martinez, V. M. L., Cardozo, P. L., Kaefer, A., Wulf, G., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2024) · Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/j.lmot.2024.101966 · Cited by 30 · see citing works

Effectively optimizing esports performance through movement science principles

Iwatsuki, T., Hagiwara, G., & Dugan, M. E. (2021) · International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching · doi:10.1177/17479541211016927 · Cited by 21 · see citing works

TDCS of the Primary Motor Cortex: Learning the Absolute Dimension of a Complex Motor Task

Parma, J. O., Profeta, V. L. D. S., de Andrade, A. G. P., Lage, G. M., & Apolinário‐Souza, T. (2020) · Journal of Motor Behavior · doi:10.1080/00222895.2020.1792823 · Cited by 19 · see citing works

Relatively Easy Criteria for Success Enhances Motor Learning by Altering Perceived Competence

Iwatsuki, T., & Regis, C. J. (2020) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.1177/0031512520981237 · Cited by 22 · see citing works

Temporal-Comparative Feedback Facilitates Golf Putting

Chiviacowsky, S., Harter, N. M., Gonçalves, G. S., & Cardozo, P. L. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02691 · Cited by 21 · see citing works

Maximal force production requires OPTIMAL conditions

Singh, H., Hockwald, A., Drake, N. B., Avedesian, J. M., Lee, S., & Wulf, G. (2020) · Human Movement Science · doi:10.1016/j.humov.2020.102661 · Cited by 16 · see citing works

Visual Illusions Affect Motor Performance, But not Learning in Highly Skilled Shooters

Bahmani, M., Diekfuss, J. A., Rostami, R., Ataee, N., & Ghadiri, F. (2017) · Journal of Motor Learning and Development · doi:10.1123/jmld.2017-0011 · Cited by 15 · see citing works

Positive feedback praising good performance does not alter the learning of an intrinsically motivating task in 10-year-old children

Drews, R., Tani, G., Cardozo, P. L., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2020) · European journal of human movement · doi:10.21134/eurjhm.2020.45.5 · Cited by 16 · see citing works

Optimizing Bowling Performance

Abdollahipour, R., Valtr, L., & Wulf, G. (2019) · Journal of Motor Learning and Development · doi:10.1123/jmld.2019-0017 · Cited by 17 · see citing works

Conceptions of Ability Influence the Learning of a Dance Pirouette in Children

Harter, N. M., Cardozo, P. L., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2019) · Journal of Dance Medicine & Science · doi:10.12678/1089-313x.23.4.167 · Cited by 13 · see citing works

Effects of positive social comparative feedback on motor sequence learning and performance expectancies

Lewis, A. F., Bohnenkamp, R., Johnson, L., den Ouden, D., Wilcox, S., Fritz, S. L., & Stewart, J. C. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1005705 · Cited by 13 · see citing works

Motor learning in golf—a systematic review

Barzyk, P., & Grüber, M. (2024) · Frontiers in Sports and Active Living · doi:10.3389/fspor.2024.1324615 · Cited by 13 · see citing works

Optimising golf putting

An, J., Chua, L.-K., & Wulf, G. (2020) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2020.1854823 · Cited by 16 · see citing works

Preference-Performance Dissociation in Golf Putting

Ziv, G., Lidor, R., Elbaz, L., & Lavie, M. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00102 · Cited by 13 · see citing works

Target Size Manipulations Affect Error-Processing Duration and Success Perceptions but not Behavioural Indices of Learning

Ong, N. T., Hawke, J. J., & Hodges, N. J. (2019) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci9050119 · Cited by 12 · see citing works

Inducing illusory control ensures persistence when rewards fade and when others outperform us

Studer, B., Geniole, S. N., Becker, M. L., Eisenegger, C., & Knecht, S. (2020) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-020-01745-4 · Cited by 12 · see citing works

That looks easy! Evidence against the benefits of an easier criterion of success for enhancing motor learning

Parma, J. O., Bacelar, M. F. B., Cabral, D. A. R., Lohse, K. R., Hodges, N. J., & Miller, M. W. (2023) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2023.102394 · Cited by 11 · see citing works

The Effect of Large Visual Illusion and External Focus of Attention on Gaze Behavior and Learning of Dart Throw Skill

Bahrami, S., Abdoli, B., Farsi, A., Aghdaei, M., & Simpson, T. (2022) · Journal of Motor Learning and Development · doi:10.1123/jmld.2022-0043 · Cited by 10 · see citing works

Different task success criteria affect expectancies of success but do not improve golf putting performance

Ziv, G., & Lidor, R. (2021) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2021.101887 · Cited by 10 · see citing works

Easy Task and Choice: Motivational Interventions Facilitate Motor Skill Learning in Children

Mousavi, S. M., & Iwatsuki, T. (2021) · Journal of Motor Learning and Development · doi:10.1123/jmld.2021-0023 · Cited by 10 · see citing works

Efficacy of an expectancy-based training in mitigating the effect of explicit gender stereotype activation on motor learning in children

Mousavi, S. M., Salehi, H., & Iwatsuki, T. (2025) · Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/j.lmot.2025.102119 · Cited by 10 · see citing works

The effect of a visual illusion and self-controlled practice on motor learning in children at risk for developmental coordination disorder

Shahbaz, R., Saemi, E., Doustan, M., Hogg, J. A., & Diekfuss, J. A. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-63387-z · Cited by 8 · see citing works

Bullseye: Effects of autonomy support and enhanced expectancies on dart throwing

Wehlmann, J. A., & Wulf, G. (2020) · International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching · doi:10.1177/1747954120967788 · Cited by 7 · see citing works

Neither Too Easy Nor Too Difficult: Effects of Different Success Criteria on Motor Skill Acquisition in Children

Mousavi, S. M., Dehghanizade, J., & Iwatsuki, T. (2022) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.2022-0082 · Cited by 6 · see citing works

Enhanced expectancies benefit performance under distraction, but compromise it under stress: Exploring the OPTIMAL theory

Simmonds, P. J., Wakefield, C. J., Coyles, G., & Roberts, J. W. (2023) · Human Movement Science · doi:10.1016/j.humov.2023.103085 · Cited by 7 · see citing works

The affective response to positive performance feedback is associated with motor learning

Palidis, D. J., & Fellows, L. K. (2024) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-024-06931-7 · Cited by 6 · see citing works

Expectancy and affective response to challenging balance practice conditions in individuals with Parkinson’s disease

Chung, Y., Lewthwaite, R., Winstein, C. J., Monterosso, J. R., & Fisher, B. E. (2020) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.14723 · Cited by 5 · see citing works

Does focus of attention alter craniocervical flexion test motor learning? A randomized controlled trial

Schell, M. S., de Araujo, F. X., Almeida, R. D. R., Peroni, I. S., Rosa, C. G., & Silva, M. F. (2020) · Human Movement Science · doi:10.1016/j.humov.2020.102709 · Cited by 5 · see citing works

The Effect of Compression Garments on Biomechanical and Physiological Factors

Craig-Jones, A., Greene, D. R., Ruiz‐Ramie, J. J., Navalta, J. W., & Mercer, J. A. (2024) · Biomechanics · doi:10.3390/biomechanics4010007 · Cited by 4 · see citing works

Barriers and facilitators to overcoming mental block in springboard and highboard diving

Pattinson, E. M., & Cotterill, S. T. (2017) · White Rose Research Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York) · Cited by 4 · see citing works

From lab to real life: Is there a link between lab-based and ecological assessment of Procedural Perceptual-Motor Learning tasks?

Martin, E., Seiwert, S., Fautrelle, L., Tisseyre, J., Gasq, D., Lemay, M., Amarantini, D., & Tallet, J. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0319715 · Cited by 3 · see citing works

Association between the Effects of Positive Social-Comparative Feedback and Learners’ Competitiveness

Akizuki, K., Yamamoto, R., Yabuki, J., Yamaguchi, K., & Ohashi, Y. (2021) · Journal of Motor Behavior · doi:10.1080/00222895.2021.2020206 · Cited by 4 · see citing works

Socioeconomic status stereotype affects motor learning

Lima, M. J. P. F., Chiviacowsky, S., Drews, R., & Cardozo, P. (2024) · Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/j.lmot.2024.102026 · Cited by 3 · see citing works

Adopting a Constraints-Led Approach to Enhance Skill Acquisition for Fast Bowlers in Grassroots Cricket

Jamil, M., Woolston, L., Manthorpe, S., Mehta, S., Memmert, D., & McRobert, A. P. (2023) · Journal of Coaching and Sports Science · doi:10.58524/jcss.v2i2.256 · Cited by 4 · see citing works

The Impact of Spatial Occlusion Training on Complex Motor Skills in Sport

Dunton, A. (2020) · doi:10.34719/8jvp-pt85 · Cited by 3 · see citing works

Learning juggling by gradually increasing difficulty vs. learning the complete skill results in different learning patterns

Geller, N., Moringen, A., & Friedman, J. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1284053 · Cited by 2 · see citing works

Does enhanced expectancy mitigate the negative impact of gender stereotype threat on women’s motor learning, perceived competence and self-efficacy?

Behbahanabadi, M., Saemi, E., Doustan, M., Simpson, T., & Deshayes, M. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-03308-5 · Cited by 3 · see citing works

Contributions of External Attentional Focus, Enhanced Expectancies and Autonomy Support to Enhance Learning Skills of Throwing Darts

Amoorezaie, P., Arabameri, E., & Boroujeni, S. T. (2020) · International Journal of Motor Control and Learning · doi:10.29252/ijmcl.2.2.42 · Cited by 2 · see citing works

The Effect of the Combination of Visual Illusion and External Focus of Attention on Learning Dart Throwing Skill in Novices

Bahrami, S., Abdoli, B., Farsi, A., & Aghdaei, M. (2022) · یافته · doi:10.32592/yafteh.2022.24.3.2 · Cited by 1 · see citing works

Preventing Musician’s Focal Dystonia: A guide for music educators

Détári, A., & ALTENMÜLLER, E. O. (2025) · International Journal of Music Education · doi:10.1177/02557614251339548 · Cited by 1 · see citing works

Verbesserung motorischen Lernens in der Neurorehabilitation

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