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Physiological role of autophagy as an intracellular recycling system: with an emphasis on nutrient metabolism.
Abstract
Autophagy is a major intracellular degradation system in which the cytoplasmic contents are degraded in the lysosome. Its fundamental and evolutionarily conserved role is adaptation to starvation. Recent studies using autophagy-defective mutants of various organisms including mammals have indeed demonstrated the importance of autophagy during starvation; however, the exact mechanism underlying this beneficial effect remains unclear. In addition, it is now apparent that autophagy is also important for cellular homeostasis even under non-starvation conditions, and both non-selective and selective types of autophagy appear to be critical for this function. Here, we discuss the role of this catabolic pathway in recycling intracellular components, with particular reference to nutrient metabolism.
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“the autophagy process is promoted when cells are cultured under starved conditions without amino acids in the culture medium (Kuma and Mizushima, 2010).”
From Proteasome dysfunction induces muscle growth defects and protein aggregation (2014) · cites this paper as Kuma and Mizushima, 2010
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“A simultaneous increase in the AMP/ATP ratio leads to the activation of AMPK by the LKB1/STRAD/MO25 complex (Kuma and Mizushima 2010; Neufeld 2010), which activates autophagy by ULK1 phosphorylation (Egan et al. 2011), as well as through inhibition of mTORC1 (Gwinn et al. 2008).”
BackgroundSchläfli, A. M., Adams, O., Galván, J. A., Gugger, M., Savic, S., Bubendorf, L., Schmid, R. A., Becker, K.-F., Tschan, M. P., Langer, R., et al. (2016) · Oncotarget · doi:10.18632/oncotarget.9647 · Cited by 123
“The cellular process of autophagy has many functions including bulk degradation of cytoplasmic content to ensure homeostasis [2], degradation of superfluous or damaged organelles [3] and the engulfment Research Paper”
BackgroundCai, Z., Zhao, B., Li, K., Zhang, L., Li, C., Quazi, S. H., & Tan, Y. (2012) · Journal of Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1002/jnr.23011 · Cited by 134
“Autophagy, a response to nutrient starvation and stress, is a housekeeping process whereby long-lived proteins and organelles, such as mitochondria, are recycled (Wu et al., 2009; Kuma and Mizushima, 2010).”
BackgroundZhao, H., Yang, M., Zhao, J., Wang, J., Zhang, Y., & Zhang, Q. (2013) · Medical Oncology · doi:10.1007/s12032-013-0475-1 · Cited by 123
“On the other hand, some researches have shown that the cellular components which are degraded by autophagolysosomes can provide amino acids, nucleotides, and lipids for ATP production and molecular synthesis of cancer cell [6].”
BackgroundGenome‐wide siRNA screen reveals amino acid starvation‐induced autophagy requires SCOC and WAC
McKnight, N. C., Jefferies, H. B. J., Alemu, E. A., Saunders, R. E., Howell, M. T., Johansen, T., & Tooze, S. A. (2012) · The EMBO Journal · doi:10.1038/emboj.2012.36 · Cited by 128
“Autophagy is also induced in response to amino-acid deprivation or external stress, recycling macromolecules and restoring metabolic functions (Kuma and Mizushima, 2010).”
Balancing nutrient and energy demand and supply via autophagy
He, C. (2022) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2022.04.071 · Cited by 143
Seldin, M. M., Lei, X., Tan, S. Y., Stanson, K. P., Wei, Z., & Wong, G. W. (2013) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m113.500736 · Cited by 124
“Prolonged periods of food deprivation turn on autophagy, the cell recycling pathway, by inducing the expression of autophagy-related genes and the formation of autophagosomes (1).”
BackgroundInfluentialAutophagy modulates cell migration and β1 integrin membrane recycling
Tuloup-Minguez, V., Hamaï, A., Greffard, A., Nicolas, V., Codogno, P., & Botti, J. (2013) · Cell Cycle · doi:10.4161/cc.26298 · Cited by 103
“Activation of this kinase in the MTOR complex 1 (MTORC1) is known to be a major repressor of autophagy.(10,16,18) Treatment with rapamycin, a MTORC1 inhibitor, stimulates autophagy and reduces cell migration.”
BackgroundHuang, G., Zhang, F., Ye, Q., & Wang, H. (2016) · Autophagy · doi:10.1080/15548627.2016.1183843 · Cited by 112
“mechanistic target of rapamycin (serine/threonine kinase) complex 1 (MTORC1) phosphorylates the ULK1 protein and inhibits autophagy initiation when nutrients are abundant.(12) Genetic disruption of autophagy genes promotes tumorigenesis and accumulation of ubiquitinated protein aggregates.”
BackgroundRole of autophagy in disease resistance and hypersensitive response-associated cell death
Hofius, D., Munch, D., Bressendorff, S., Mundy, J., & Petersen, M. (2011) · Cell Death and Differentiation · doi:10.1038/cdd.2011.43 · Cited by 104
Rubicon: LC 3‐associated phagocytosis and beyond
Wong, S., Sil, P., & Martinez, J. (2018) · The FEBS Journal · doi:10.1111/febs.14354 · Cited by 101
Garay, E., Campos, S. E., de la Cruz, J. G., Gaspar, A. P., Jinich, A., & DeLuna, A. (2014) · PLoS Genetics · doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1004168 · Cited by 98
Pompe disease: pathogenesis, molecular genetics and diagnosis
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“In fact, amino acid levels in autophagy deficient mice (atg 3, 5, 7, 9 and atg16L1 knockout mice) are lower than in wild type mice after birth and although these mice appear normal, they die within 1 day since they cannot survive the neonatal starvation period due to termination of the transplacental nutrient supply.(…”
Backgroundvan der Sloot, K. W. J., Amini, M., Peters, V., Dijkstra, G. D. H., & Alizadeh, B. Z. (2017) · Inflammatory Bowel Diseases · doi:10.1097/mib.0000000000001217 · Cited by 92
Role of autophagy in aging: The good, the bad, and the ugly
TABIBZADEH, S. S. (2022) · Aging Cell · doi:10.1111/acel.13753 · Cited by 107
“There is a conundrum in the relationship of autophagy and senescence, since autophagy appears to have both anti and prosenescence effects (Kwon et al., 2017).”
BackgroundBai, J., Liu, T., Tu, B., Yuan, M., Shu, Z., Fan, M., Huo, S., Guo, Y., Wang, L., Wang, H., et al. (2022) · Autophagy · doi:10.1080/15548627.2022.2093026 · Cited by 95
“As we know, autophagy is an important process of replenishing amino acids when cells faced nutrientdeprived environments [17].”
BackgroundBharath, L. P., Cho, J. M., Park, S.-K., Ruan, T., Li, Y., Mueller, R., Bean, T., Reese, V. R., Richardson, R. S., Cai, J., et al. (2017) · Arteriosclerosis Thrombosis and Vascular Biology · doi:10.1161/atvbaha.117.309510 · Cited by 98
Danon disease – dysregulation of autophagy in a multisystem disorder with cardiomyopathy
Rowland, T. J., Sweet, M., Mestroni, L., & Taylor, M. R. G. (2016) · Journal of Cell Science · doi:10.1242/jcs.184770 · Cited by 99
“…mitochondria, ribosomes, peroxisomes, endoplasmic reticulum and additional membrane structures, glycogen, lipid granules and other cytosolic aggregates (Kovsan et al., 2010; Kundu et al., 2008; Kuma and Mizushima, 2010; Schneider and Cuervo, 2014; Shires and Gustafsson, 2015; Nishida et al., 2015).”
BackgroundmTOR Activity and Autophagy in Senescent Cells, a Complex Partnership
Cayo, Á., Segovia, R., Venturini, W., Moore‐Carrasco, R., Valenzuela, C. A., & Brown, N. E. (2021) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms22158149 · Cited by 96
The influence of circular RNAs on autophagy and disease progression
Wang, Y., Mo, Y., Miao, P., Zhang, S., Gong, Z., Yan, Q., Tang, Y., He, Y., Liao, Q., Li, X., et al. (2021) · Autophagy · doi:10.1080/15548627.2021.1917131 · Cited by 103
“However, when stimulated by metabolic changes [10,11], oxidative stress [12], endoplasmic reticulum stress [13], mechanical damage [14,15], or protein aggregation [16,17], cells respond by swallowing and digesting aged or damaged organelles, or misfolded or accumulated proteins, to maintain homeostasis.”
BackgroundYoung, C., Sinadinos, A., Lefebvre, A., Chan, P., Arkle, S., Vaudry, D., & Górecki, D. C. (2015) · Autophagy · doi:10.4161/15548627.2014.994402 · Cited by 88
Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms of Insect Immunity
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“In this manner, the degradative process of autophagy helps recycle nutrients and maintains cellular homeostasis [179].”
BackgroundProteasome dysfunction induces muscle growth defects and protein aggregation
Kitajima, Y., Tashiro, Y., Suzuki, N., Warita, H., Kato, M., Tateyama, M., Ando, R., Izumi, R., Yamazaki, M., Abe, M., et al. (2014) · Journal of Cell Science · doi:10.1242/jcs.150961 · Cited by 79
“process is promoted when cells are cultured under starved conditions without amino acids in the culture medium (Kuma and Mizushima, 2010).”
BackgroundRole of autophagy in intervertebral disc degeneration
Kritschil, R., Scott, M. J., Sowa, G., & Vo, N. N. (2021) · Journal of Cellular Physiology · doi:10.1002/jcp.30631 · Cited by 85
“Macroautophagy herein referred to as autophagy, is a well‐ established intracellular survival mechanism vital for cell function (Kuma & Mizushima, 2010).”
BackgroundInfluentialGuo, B., Tam, A., Santi, S. A., & Parissenti, A. M. (2016) · BMC Cancer · doi:10.1186/s12885-016-2790-3 · Cited by 88
“autophagy occurs in all cells to ensure that only functional organelles are retained [4].”
Kuramoto, K., Liang, H., Hong, J., & He, C. (2023) · Cell Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2023.01.011 · Cited by 87
Autophagy supports survival and phototransduction protein levels in rod photoreceptors
Zhou, Z., Doggett, T. A., Sène, A., Apte, R. S., & Ferguson, T. A. (2015) · Cell Death and Differentiation · doi:10.1038/cdd.2014.229 · Cited by 78
“hypoxia), autophagy is activated immediately (induced autophagy).(6) Induced autophagy maintains the amino acid pool”
BackgroundNaito, T., Kuma, A., & Mizushima, N. (2013) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m113.456228 · Cited by 88
“The induced autophagy is important for providing amino acids and other factors, which can be used for synthesis of proteins and other metabolites, energy production, and gluconeogenesis under starvation conditions (4, 6).”
BackgroundSelf-citationAutophagy Modulators: Mechanistic Aspects and Drug Delivery Systems
Tavakol, S., Ashrafizadeh, M., Deng, S., Azarian, M., Abdoli, A., Motavaf, M., Poormoghadam, D., Khanbabaei, H., Afshar, E. G., Mandegary, A., et al. (2019) · Biomolecules · doi:10.3390/biom9100530 · Cited by 92
Chloroquine and nanoparticle drug delivery: A promising combination
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Role of AMPK in regulation of LC3 lipidation as a marker of autophagy in skeletal muscle
Fritzen, A. M., Frøsig, C., Jeppesen, J. F., Jensen, T. E., Lundsgaard, A., Serup, A. K., Schjerling, P., Proud, C. G., Richter, E. A., & Kiens, B. (2016) · Cellular Signalling · doi:10.1016/j.cellsig.2016.03.005 · Cited by 86
Oral, Ö., Akkoç, Y., Bayraktar, O., & Gözüaçık, D. (2016) · PubMed · doi:10.14670/hh-11-714 · Cited by 78
“After the fusion of the outer membrane with lysosomes, the inner membrane and the cargo are degraded by hydrolytic enzymes in lysosomes and then its constituents are recycled (Gozuacik and Kimchi, 2007; Kuma and Mizushima, 2010).”
BackgroundAutophagy in Toxicology: Cause or Consequence?
Orrenius, S., Kaminskyy, V. O., & Zhivotovsky, B. (2012) · The Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology · doi:10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-011112-140210 · Cited by 81
TFEB Biology and Agonists at a Glance
Chen, M., Dai, Y., Liu, S., Fan, Y., Ding, Z., & Li, D. (2021) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells10020333 · Cited by 79
Wang, J.-Q., Wen, X., Zhang, Y.-Y., Zou, P., Cheng, L., Gan, R.-Y., Li, X., Liu, D.-Y., & Geng, F. (2020) · Food Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.127884 · Cited by 71
Role of Autophagy in Lung Inflammation
Painter, J. D., Galle-Treger, L., & Akbari, O. (2020) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2020.01337 · Cited by 79
“This vesicle is called an autophagosome and when fused with the lysosome it becomes an autolysosome containing all the hydrolytic enzymes needed to break down its contents (4).”
BackgroundAmino Acid Homeostasis in Mammalian Cells with a Focus on Amino Acid Transport
Bröer, S., & Gauthier-Coles, G. (2021) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1093/jn/nxab342 · Cited by 86
Autophagy protects against aminochrome-induced cell death in substantia nigra-derived cell line.
Paris, I., Muñoz, P., Huenchuguala, S., Couve, E., Sanders, L. H., Greenamyre, J., Caviedes, P., & Segura-Aguilar, J. (2011) · Toxicological Sciences · doi:10.1093/toxsci/kfr060 · Cited by 69
“However, autophagy is also an intracellular bulk degradation process whereby cytoplasm proteins and organelles are degraded and recycled through lysosomes (Kuma and Mizushima, 2010; Matsui et al., 2008; Tettamanti et al., 2008).”
BackgroundThe Filamentous Fungus Sordaria macrospora as a Genetic Model to Study Fruiting Body Development
Teichert, I., Nowrousian, M., Pöggeler, S., & Kück, U. (2014) · Advances in genetics · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800149-3.00004-4 · Cited by 68
“It is a lysosome/vacuole-dependent degradation process for the recycling of macromolecular building blocks and the removal of surplus, aberrant, or defective cell constituents (Kuma & Mizushima, 2010).”
BackgroundCui, M., Yu, H. K., Wang, J., Gao, J., & Li, J. (2013) · Journal of Diabetes Research · doi:10.1155/2013/852754 · Cited by 65
“Autophagy is an intracellular recycling pathway that functions during basal conditions but can be induced under stress such as starvation [6].”
BackgroundRegulation of Exercise-Induced Autophagy in Skeletal Muscle
Rocchi, A., & He, C. (2017) · Current Pathobiology Reports · doi:10.1007/s40139-017-0135-9 · Cited by 69
Sporadic Alzheimer's Disease: The Starving Brain
Mamelak, M. (2012) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-2012-120370 · Cited by 59
“These lipoproteins considered the most atherogenic of the lipoproteins.”
How Autophagy Shapes the Tumor Microenvironment in Ovarian Cancer
Ferraresi, A., Girone, C., Esposito, A., Vidoni, C., Vallino, L., Secomandi, E., Dhanasekaran, D. N., & Isidoro, C. (2020) · Frontiers in Oncology · doi:10.3389/fonc.2020.599915 · Cited by 62
“The sequestered cargo is degraded by lysosomal acid hydrolases into monomeric constituents that are exported across the lysosomal membrane to the cytosol for re-use during cellular renovation and macromolecules turnover (22).”
BackgroundA ravenous defense: canonical and non-canonical autophagy in immunity
Sil, P., Muse, G. W., & Martinez, J. (2017) · Current Opinion in Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.coi.2017.10.004 · Cited by 68
Loos, B., Klionsky, D. J., & Wong, E. S. P. (2017) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2017.05.001 · Cited by 64
Sorafenib-induced defective autophagy promotes cell death by necroptosis
Kharaziha, P., Chioureas, D., Baltatzis, G., Fonseca, P., Rodriguez, P. Q., Gogvadze, V. G., Lennartsson, L., Björklund, A.-C., Zhivotovsky, B., Grandér, D., et al. (2015) · Oncotarget · doi:10.18632/oncotarget.5797 · Cited by 56
“It is a cytoprotective, physiological process that maintains homeostasis by relieving the cell from cytotoxic, damaged organelles as well as support survival during conditions of metabolic stress [15, 16].”
BackgroundThe Interplay between Autophagy and NLRP3 Inflammasome in Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury
Lv, S., Liu, H., & Wang, H. (2021) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms22168773 · Cited by 60
“Autophagosomes fuse with lysosomes to become autolysosomes in which hydrolases degrade the contents [5].”
BackgroundEmerging roles of autophagy in metabolism and metabolic disorders
Rocchi, A., & He, C. (2015) · Frontiers in Biology · doi:10.1007/s11515-015-1354-2 · Cited by 66
“Autophagy occurs constitutively at a low level, which is important for intracellular quality control through constitutive turnover of cytoplasmic component (Kuma and Mizushima, 2010).”
BackgroundAutophagy as a crosstalk mediator of metabolic organs in regulation of energy metabolism
Kim, K. H., & Lee, M. (2013) · Reviews in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders · doi:10.1007/s11154-013-9272-6 · Cited by 50
Cheng, N., Guo, A., & Meng, H. (2016) · BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders · doi:10.1186/s12891-016-0995-x · Cited by 50
“The most important characteristic of autophagy is the formation of autophagosomes [15], they fuse with lysosomes to form autolysosomes, and then the contents in autolysosomes will be degraded by lysosomal enzyme [16].”
BackgroundMuñoz, P., Paris, I. B., Sanders, L. H., Greenamyre, J. T., & Segura‐Aguilar, J. (2012) · Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Basis of Disease · doi:10.1016/j.bbadis.2012.03.010 · Cited by 51
Phospholipase D-mediated autophagic regulation is a potential target for cancer therapy
Jang, Y., Choi, K., & Min, D. S. (2013) · Cell Death and Differentiation · doi:10.1038/cdd.2013.174 · Cited by 53
“The ATG1/ULK1 complex (Atg1 in yeast and ULK1 in mammals) is an essential positive regulator of autophagosome formation.(9) mTOR serves as a major intracellular hub for integration of autophagy-related signals.”
BackgroundTamtaji, O. R., Hadinezhad, T., Fallah, M., Shahmirzadi, A. R., Taghizadeh, M., Behnam, M., & Asemi, Z. (2019) · Current Drug Targets · doi:10.2174/1389450120666191112155654 · Cited by 50
Hu, H., Li, B., Wang, J., Tan, Y., Xu, M., Xu, W., & Lu, H. (2023) · Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy · doi:10.1016/j.biopha.2023.114778 · Cited by 58
Hashemi, M., Nadafzadeh, N., Imani, M. H., Rajabi, R., Ziaolhagh, S., Bayanzadeh, S. D., Norouzi, R., Rafiei, R., Koohpar, Z. K., Raei, B., et al. (2023) · Cell Communication and Signaling · doi:10.1186/s12964-023-01053-z · Cited by 52
“The basic level of autophagy is required under normal conditions, but its induction can be mediated by metabolic changes [8, 9], oxidative stress [10], endoplasmic reticulum stress [11], mechanical damage [12, 13], and misfolded protein accumulation [14, 15].”
BackgroundInhibiting autophagy increases epirubicin's cytotoxicity in breast cancer cells
Guo, W., Wang, Y., Wang, Z., Wang, Y., & Zheng, H. (2016) · Cancer Science · doi:10.1111/cas.13059 · Cited by 44
Autophagy mechanism and physiological relevance brewed from yeast studies
Devenish, R. J. (2012) · Frontiers in Bioscience-Scholar · doi:10.2741/s337 · Cited by 39
“An induction signal (1) leads to the commencement of phagophore formation (2).”
BackgroundQuercetin Regulates the Integrated Stress Response to Improve Memory
Nakagawa, T., & Ohta, K. (2019) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms20112761 · Cited by 44
“Since autophagy plays a role in the recycling of amino acids, glucose, and lipids, autophagy is induced when cells are exposed to amino acid starvation [61].”
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Paraoxonases and Chemokine (C–C Motif) Ligand-2 in Noncommunicable Diseases
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“In nutrient-rich conditions, autophagy holds at a low level to maintain intracellular homeostasis through the removal of long-lived and malformed proteins and damaged organelles, called basal autophagy [100].”
BackgroundAmino Acid Transporters as Disease Modifiers and Drug Targets
Bröer, S. (2018) · SLAS DISCOVERY · doi:10.1177/2472555218755629 · Cited by 53
Role of autophagy in the maintenance and function of cancer stem cells
Vitale, I., Manic, G., Dandrea, V., & Maria, R. D. (2015) · The International Journal of Developmental Biology · doi:10.1387/ijdb.150082iv · Cited by 39
“…acidic hydrolases), whose catabolic activity is triggered by the activation of H+ pumps, which lowers the pH of the lysosomal lumen(Kroemer et al., 2010) Lysosomal permeases eventually promote the cytosolic export of the product of this degradation for potential reuse(Kuma and Mizushima, 2010).”
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May, A. I., Prescott, M., & Ohsumi, Y. (2020) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-020-18805-x · Cited by 36
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“During stress, increased levels of autophagy permit cells to adapt to changing nutritional and energy demands through protein catabolism [42].”
BackgroundZhou, L., He, X., Gao, B., & Xiong, S. (2015) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.01028-15 · Cited by 33
“The process involves the formation of vesicles, called autophagosomes, which capture and deliver protein aggregates and damaged organelles to lysosomes for degradation (41, 42).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Kuma, A., & Mizushima, N.
- Affiliations
- Tokyo Medical and Dental University (JP)
- Corresponding author
- Mizushima, Noboru
- Venue
- Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2010-09
- Volume
- 21
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 683-690
- ISSN
- 1084-9521 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2062922078
- Cited by
- 237
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 17 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 24 · 2012: 13
- FWCI
- 12.57
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology
- Takeda Science Foundation
- Korea Toray Science Foundation
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cell Biology › Autophagy in Disease and Therapy
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Physiology › Calcium signaling and nucleotide metabolism
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Aging › Genetics, Aging, and Longevity in Model Organisms
- Keywords
- autophagy, nutrient metabolism, starvation adaptation, lysosomal degradation, selective autophagy, cellular homeostasis, catabolism
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Autophagy, Cell Physiological Phenomena, Humans, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Starvation, Metabolic Networks and Pathways
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