Opportunities and obstacles to consider when using peer- and self-assessment to improve student learning: Case studies into teachers’ implementation

Harris, Lois R.; Brown, Gavin T.L.

doi:10.1016/j.tate.2013.07.008

Cited by 193Student Assessment and FeedbackInnovative Teaching and Learning MethodsEvaluation of Teaching Practices

Opportunities and obstacles to consider when using peer- and self-assessment to improve student learning: Case studies into teachers’ implementation

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Harris, Lois R., Brown, Gavin T.L.·2013·Teaching and Teacher Education

DOI 10.1016/j.tate.2013.07.008

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Good classroom relations between teachers and students are essential, and making mistakes should be viewed as an opportunity to learn by both teachers and students.
“Harris and Brown (2013) found that good classroom relations between teachers and students are essential, and making mistakes should be viewed as an opportunity to learn by both teachers and students.”
From Formative assessment: A systematic review of critical teacher prerequisites for classroom practice (2020) · cites this paper as Harris and Brown (2013)
Several studies focused on peer-and self-assessment as a way of involving students.
“Several studies focused on peer-and self-assessment as a way of involving students”
From Formative assessment: A systematic review of critical teacher prerequisites for classroom practice (2020) · cites this paper as Harris & Brown, 2013
It is important that teachers explicitly articulate a rationale for the use of peer-and self-assessments, and communicate this with students.
“Harris and Brown (2013) found that it is important that teachers explicitly articulate a rationale for the use of peer-and self-assessments, and communicate this with students.”
From Formative assessment: A systematic review of critical teacher prerequisites for classroom practice (2020) · cites this paper as Harris and Brown (2013)

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A Critical Review of Research on Student Self-Assessment
Andrade, H. (2019) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2019.00087 · Cited by 677 · see citing works
“Brown and Harris (2013) defined self-assessment in the K-16 context as a “descriptive and evaluative act carried out by the student concerning his or her own work and academic abilities” (p. 368).”
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“For example, based on in-depth case studies of three teachers’ classrooms, Harris and Brown (2013) concluded that students were much more aware of interpersonal factors (e.g., having their SSA seen by classmates or by the teacher) impinging on realistic SSA than were their teachers.”
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“A significant number of papers advocate a theoretical relationship between SA and SRL (Lan 1998; Paris and Paris 2001) and even some empirical papers try to establish such a relationship based on teachers’ and students’ perceptions of assessment practices (Harris and Brown 2013; Tan 2012).”
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The Future of Self-Assessment in Classroom Practice: Reframing Self-Assessment as a Core Competency.
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“There is robust evidence that when self-assessments are disclosed (e.g., traffic light self-assessments displayed to the teacher in front of the class), there are strong psychological pressures on students that lead to dissembling and dishonesty (Harris & Brown, 2013; Cowie, 2009).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Accuracy in student self-assessment: directions and cautions for research
Brown, G. T. L., Andrade, H. L., & Chen, F. (2015) · Assessment in Education Principles Policy and Practice · doi:10.1080/0969594x.2014.996523 · Cited by 186 · see citing works
“Others give elevated self-assessments to avoid being shamed in front of the class (Harris & Brown, 2013).”
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“…friendship marking due to friendship bonds, psychological unsafety, fear of disapproval when giving a low score or negative feedback (i.e., recrimination), and distrust in one’s own and others’ evaluative capabilities (e.g., Harris and Brown 2013; van Gennip et al. 2010; Vanderhoven et al. 2015).”
Background
Giving or receiving feedback: which is more beneficial to students’ learning?
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“…peers and benefits student learning by increasing accountability, encouraging reflection and CONTACT Georgeta Ion georgeta.ion@uab.cat Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group assessing their own or their peers’ performance, and developing evaluative expertise (Harris and Brown, 2013).”
Background
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“Harris and Brown (2013) found among three New Zealand teachers that they were aware of the potential of PA to enhance students’ learning and selfregulated learning.”
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“…of this learning approach inspired by social constructivism, this evolution in evaluation entails different innovative forms of assessment like self, peer and co assessment (Fastré, van der Klink, Sluijsmans, & van Merriënboer, 2013; Harris & Brown, 2013; Raes, Vanderhoven, & Schellens, 2013).”
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Diverse perspectives on student agency in classroom assessment
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“…as novices, can consistently provide accurate and appropriate feedback that will lead to improvement (Brown & Harris, 2013; Cowie, 2005, 2009; Harris & Brown, 2013; Lee, 2007; Noonan & Duncan, 2005; Peterson & Irving, 2008; Ross, 2006; Ross, Rolheiser, & Hogaboam-Grey, 1998), at least within…”
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“I worked hard) (Harris & Brown, 2013).”
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“(Tom, Engineering) Students within the school sample also reported colluding with peers to boost peerassessment results or artificially inflating their own scores in hopes of obtaining better marks or of hiding weaknesses (Harris and Brown 2013).”
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“This is in harmony with Schuck et al. (2008), Ross (2006), Harris & Brown (2013), Sun et al. (2015), and Siow (2015).”
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“For example, Harris and Brown (2013) conducted three case studies with three teachers about their conceptions and practices of formative assessment, including selfassessment.”
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“To inspire learners to think critically about their learning outcomes and process, this style of assessment is usually utilized for formative assessment purposes (Harris and Brown, 2013).”
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“…and peer-assessment (SAPA), for which there is a large body of supporting literature (see, for example, van Zundert, Sluijsmans, & van Merriënboer, 2010; Elliott & Higgins, 2005; Harris & Brown, 2013; van Gennip, Segers, & Tillema, 2010; Kearney, 2012; El-Mowafy, 2013; Shams & Tavakoli, 2014).”
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“This is important as several authors state that creating a safe environment is a precondition for accurate and thus valuable PA activities (Harris & Brown, 2013; van Gennip, Segers, & Tillema, 2009).”
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“Teachers with adequate pedagogical knowledge of FA and classroom teaching must support and orchestrate these activities (Harris & Brown, 2013; Heritage, 2007; Oeksuez et al., 2024).”
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“Self-assessment skills for learning require appropriate guidance and need to be explicitly taught as well (Boud et al., 1999; Brown and Harris, 2014; Harris and Brown, 2013).”
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“As such, self-assessment is an SRL competence (Andrade and Brookhart 2016; Andrade and Brown 2016; Brown and Harris 2013; Harris and Brown 2013) that entails the skills of reflection, task analysis, goal setting and monitoring one’s learning progress.”
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Feedback in the Context of Self-Assessment
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“[46], by asking students to identify mistakes in their own”
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“…established assessment parameters [9], students’ unpreparedness to do so [10,11], or even students’ psychological pressure to disguise the truth [12]. a critical review on sa 13 has called for less focus on looking into the consistency and summative form of sa, but more on its formative form…”
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Effects of using rubrics in self-assessment with instructor feedback on pre-service teachers’ academic performance, self-regulated learning and perceptions of self-assessment
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“Several of the students’ perceived factors (i.e. attitude, self-efficacy, their perceived usefulness of self-assessment) have a potential influence on their self-assessment practices (Harris & Brown, 2013; Logan, 2015; Yan et al., 2020a).”
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“PA among friends could, however, be perceived as more comfortable (Harris and Brown 2013).”
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“Harris and Brown (2013) remind us that fundamental to successful implementation of peer assessment is the construction of awareness of the feature that this type of assessment entails, that students are free from instructor dependence, since peer assessment is essentially a student-led processes.”
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“…implication is that university teachers’ assessment can be perceived as effective, efficient, and equitable, if they accommodate students’ individual differences (e.g., interests, readiness levels, age, gender, culture, first language, learning styles) (Harris & Brown, 2013; Rasooli et al., 2018).”
Background
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“…as a group; it has clear benefits for students’ learning processes, as it raises their level of understanding of the assessment criteria, it promotes reflection and assessment of their own work, and it helps them form better assessment judgement (Harris & Brown, 2013; Panadero & Broadbent, 2018).”
Background
Peer versus teacher corrections through electronic learning communities and face-to-face classroom interactions and EFL learners’ passion for learning, speaking fluency, and accuracy
Li, X., & Hu, W. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e25849 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“Lastly, in New Zealand, Harris and Brown [48] shed light on the nuances of peer feedback, highlighting how its accuracy is influenced by factors such as friendship, peer hate, or the level of experience.”
Background
A conceptual framework for Assessment-Informed Differentiation (AID) in the classroom
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“A specific way to involve students in formative assessment is the use of peer- and self-assessment (Bryant and Carless 2010; Gamlem and Smith 2013; Harris and Brown 2013; Lee 2011).”
Method
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“…in peer-feedback activities so that they have the opportunity to learn from one another (Black & Wiliam, 1998; Bryant & Carless, 2010; Crisp, 2012; Harris & Brown, 2013; Heitink et al., 2016; Wiliam & Leahy, 2015) Providing peer-feed-back can be beneficial, for example, because it requires…”
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“In practice, selfassessment may range from simple self-grading without further reflection to providing students with opportunities to undertake comprehensive reflection on their current or past performance to improve the future (Brown and Harris, 2014; Harris and Brown, 2013; Yan, 2020).”
Background
Development and optimisation of an in-service teacher training programme on motivational assessment in physical education
Slingerland, M., Borghouts, L. B., Jans, L., Weeldenburg, G., van Dokkum, G., Vos, S. B., & Haerens, L. L. (2016) · European Physical Education Review · doi:10.1177/1356336x16639212 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Peer- and self-assessment: A Case Study to Improve the Students’ Learning Ability
Li, Y., & Chen, L. (2016) · Journal of Language Teaching and Research · doi:10.17507/jltr.0704.20 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Peer- and self-assessment are student-led assessment practices with the potential to positively affect achievement (Harris & Brown, 2013).”
Background
Evaluating the alignment of self, peer and lecture assessment in an Aotearoa New Zealand pre-service teacher education course
Tait-McCutcheon, S., & Knewstubb, B. (2017) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2017.1408771 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Exploring teachers’ attitudes and self-efficacy beliefs for implementing student self-assessment of English as a foreign language writing
Zhang, X. S., Zhang, L. J., Parr, J. M., & Biebricher, C. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.956160 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Challenges facing English as a foreign language teachers’ self-assessment of writing implementation With low self-efficacy levels of implementing selfassessment of writing, the participating Chinese EFL teachers have signified several challenges, which are in accordance with those that have been identified by previous…”
Result
Design and First Impressions of a Small Private Online Course in Clinical Workplace Learning: Questionnaire and Interview Study
Hamoen, E. C., de Jong, P. G. M., van Blankenstein, F. M., & Reinders, M. E. J. (2022) · JMIR Medical Education · doi:10.2196/29624 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Students embracing change towards more powerful learning environments in vocational education
Placklé, I., Könings, K. D., Jacquet, W., Libotton, A., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Engels, N. (2017) · Educational Studies · doi:10.1080/03055698.2017.1331840 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“This also implies evaluation for learning throughout the learning process, contributing to the improvement of the learning processes in a continuous way (Tomlinson 1999; Brown 2004; Harris and Brown 2013; Brown and Harris 2014).”
Background
Students’ experiences in self-assessment: training, processes and feedback use in secondary and higher education
Pinedo, L., Panadero, E., Ruiz, J. F., & Rodríguez-Hernández, C. F. (2023) · Assessment in Education Principles Policy and Practice · doi:10.1080/0969594x.2023.2284630 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“It is relevant to start our exploration from a wide enough understanding of self-assessment, because students can have different perceptions of what constitutes self-assessment (Cowie, 2009; Harris & Brown, 2013).”
Background
Learner-oriented assessment (LOA) practice: the comparative study of self-assessment, peer assessment, and teacher assessment on EFL learners’ writing complicity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF), speaking CAF, and attitude
Al-Rashidi, A., Asif, M., Vanani, M. G., & Aberash, A. (2022) · Language Testing in Asia · doi:10.1186/s40468-022-00209-x · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“This kind of evaluation is typically utilized for formative assessment goals to encourage the students to think about their learning process and outcomes (Harris & Brown, 2013).”
Background
Parental contributions and assessment for learning as a component of mathematics homework
Williams, H., & Williams, K. (2020) · Education 3-13 · doi:10.1080/03004279.2020.1842480 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Student perceptions of their involvement in formative assessment feedback practices: “I can do it myself”
Hill, L., & Edwards, F. (2019) · Assessment Matters · doi:10.18296/am.0036 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Furthermore, it has been identified that further work is required to investigate how it is best to facilitate self and peer assessment for students in the compulsory education sector (Harris & Brown, 2013).”
Background
Peer assessment use, its social nature challenges and perceived educational value: A teachers’ survey study
Rotsaert, T., Panadero, E., & Schellens, T. (2018) · Studies In Educational Evaluation · doi:10.1016/j.stueduc.2018.07.001 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Supporting teachers to develop formative assessment knowledge and skills in no-fee schools
Ramollo, J. K., & Kanjee, A. (2023) · South African Journal of Childhood Education · doi:10.4102/sajce.v13i1.1247 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Furthermore, self-assessment should be linked to LIs and SC and expose to learners appropriately to improve learning (Harris & Brown 2013).”
Background
Understanding Chinese EFL teachers’ conceptions and practices of assessment
Gan, Z.-D., Ieong, S. S. L., Su, Y.-L., & He, J.-B. (2018) · Australian Review of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1075/aral.17077.gan · Cited by 10 · see citing works
The impact of peer assessment design on interpersonal processes: A systematic review
Senden, M., & Coertjens, L. (2024) · Studies In Educational Evaluation · doi:10.1016/j.stueduc.2024.101405 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Unfolding the typology and quality of the learner agency practices in the teachers’ implementation of the 2013 curriculum in Indonesia: the normalisation process theory perspective
Burhanuddin, B., & Arrafii, M. A. (2022) · Asia Pacific Education Review · doi:10.1007/s12564-022-09806-0 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Indonesian Novice EFL Teachers' Perceptions of the Use of Peer Assessment in Speaking Class
Wulandari, I., Purwati, O., Setiawan, S., & Anam, S. (2021) · JET (Journal of English Teaching) · doi:10.33541/jet.v7i1.2347 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Similarly, teachers’ lack of instruction in using peer assessment that led to their restricted understanding and perception of peer assessment was also described by Harris and Brown (2013).”
Background
Formatives Assessment im alltäglichen Mathematikunterricht von Primarlehrpersonen: Häufigkeit, Dauer und Qualität
Buholzer, A., Baer, M., Zulliger, S., Torchetti, L., Ruelmann, M., Häfliger, A., & Lötscher, H. (2020) · Unterrichtswissenschaft · doi:10.1007/s42010-020-00083-7 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
University teachers’ reflections on the reasons behind their changing feedback practice
Wei, W., & Yanmei, X. (2017) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2017.1414146 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Previous studies (Harris and Brown 2013) suggest that feedback practices vary widely and are difficult to change.”
Background
Towards student-centred feedback practices: evaluating the impact of a professional learning intervention in primary schools
Brooks, C., Burton, R., der Kleij, F. M. V., Carroll, A., & Hattie, J. (2021) · Assessment in Education Principles Policy and Practice · doi:10.1080/0969594x.2021.1976108 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“For example, previous research has demonstrated that students may initially resist peer or self-assessment and feedback (Balan, 2012, as cited in Jonsson et al., 2015; Harris & Brown, 2013).”
Method
'Nobody is Watching but Everything I do is Measured': Teacher Accountability, Learner Agency and the Crisis of Control.
Dargusch, J., & Charteris, J. (2018) · The Australian journal of teacher education · doi:10.14221/ajte.2018v43.n10.2 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“It is immersed in empowering, open and positive teacher–student (Smit, 2013) and student– student relationships (Harris & Brown, 2013).”
Background
The Effect of Conceptions of Assessment upon Reading Achievement: An Evaluation of the Influence of Self-efficacy and Interest
Brown, G. T. L., & Walton, K. (2017) · doi:10.31532/interdiscipeducpsychol.1.1.003 · Cited by 8
Self-citation
The influence of self-editing on micro skills development in academic writing in English as a second language
Pospelova, T. (2016) · doi:10.17323/2411-7390-2016-2-1-30-38 · Cited by 8
Emotional and Social Intelligence Competencies in the Digital Era
Bonesso, S., Bruni, E., & Gerli, F. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-33578-6_3 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Peer- and self-assessment in collaborative online language-learning tasks: the role of modes and phases of regulation of learning
Bernard, R. C., & Kermarrec, G. (2024) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-024-00915-5 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Although learners frequently report emotional difficulty with the PA experience in general, or anxiety at the potential of leading their peers astray with their assessments (Harris & Brown, 2013; To & Panadero, 2019), such results are difficult to come by in the SA literature.”
Diseño y Validación de un Cuestionario de Percepción del Aprendizaje a través del Feedback entre Iguales en Educación Superior
Martí, A. S., Moreno, J. L. M., & Ion, G. (2019) · Revista Iberoamericana de Diagnóstico y Evaluación - e Avaliação Psicológica · doi:10.21865/ridep53.3.09
Rater Errors among Peer-Assessors: Applying the Many-Facet Rasch Measurement Model
Esfandiari, R. (2015) · Iranian Journal of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.18869/acadpub.ijal.18.2.77 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Topping (1998), Asikainen, Virtanen, Postareff, and Pekka Heino (2014), and Harris and Brown (2013) found that peer-assessment is a reliable and valid method of improving students‘ learning. Similarly, Topping, Smith, Swanson, and Elliot (2000) reported on the adequacy of the peer-assessment, noting that reliability a…”
Influential
Differentiated Learning Strategies: Creating an Adaptive and Inclusive Indonesian Classroom
Saputra, E., Nugrahani, F., & Nurnaningsih, N. (2025) · Jurnal Onoma Pendidikan Bahasa dan Sastra · doi:10.30605/onoma.v11i4.6975 · Cited by 6
“Despite the significant potential of this approach to improve student understanding, various obstacles remain in its implementation (Bos & Schneider, 2009; Harris & Brown, 2013; Hodges, 2023).”
Toward a Praxis-Oriented Understanding of Student Self-Assessment in STEAM Education: How Exemplary Educators Leverage Self-Assessment
Rickey, N., Dubek, M., & DeLuca, C. (2023) · Cambridge Journal of Education · doi:10.1080/0305764x.2023.2196245 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Knowing HE standards: how good are students at evaluating academic work?
Guest, J., & Riegler, R. (2021) · Higher Education Research & Development · doi:10.1080/07294360.2020.1867516 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Numerous studies, from a wide range of different disciplines, take this approach and report widely differing results (Harris & Brown, 2013; Cassidy, 2007; Lew et al., 2010).”
Result
Online Writing Community: What Can We Learn from Failure?
Tang, E., Cheng, L., & Ng, C. W. (2020) · RELC Journal · doi:10.1177/0033688220912038 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“First and fore-most, learners tend to value teacher feedback more than peer response (Harris and Brown, 2013; Miao et al., 2006).”
Background
The Promotion of Self-Regulated Learning Through Peer Feedback in Initial Teacher Education
García, E. C., & Seguí, L. P. (2020) · International Journal of Technology-Enabled Student Support Services · doi:10.4018/ijtesss.2020010101 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Changes in students’ confidence calibration across a sequence of low-stakes confidence assessments
Foster, C. F., & Renie, P. (2024) · Asian Journal for Mathematics Education · doi:10.1177/27527263241298968 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“The teacher provided the answers to the students and then students marked their own answers, under supervision, as is normal practice in many schools (Harris & Brown, 2013).”
Implementation of ESL Assessment in Malaysian Schools: A Systematic Literature Review Paper
Franchis, C., & Mohamad, M. B. (2023) · International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development · doi:10.6007/ijarped/v12-i2/17537 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“(Bryant & Carless, 2010; Harris & Brown, 2013; Lynch & Golen, 1992; Noonan & Duncan, 2005).”
Responding to Assessment for Learning
Brown, G. (2021) · The New Zealand Annual Review of Education · doi:10.26686/nzaroe.v26.6854 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citation
Face-to-Face Peer Assessment in Teacher Education/Training: A Review
Topping, K. J. (2021) · The Educational Review USA · doi:10.26855/er.2021.05.002 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Underpinning strategies: Harris and Brown (2013) reported on PA in three classrooms.”
IMPROVe: Six research-based principles to realise peer assessment in educational contexts
Serbati, A., & Grion, V. (2019) · Form@re : Open Journal per la Formazione in Rete · doi:10.13128/form-7707 · Cited by 5
“Explain it on the blackboard”. An analysis of the educational interaction in mirror assessment activities
Montanero, M., & Marques, M.-J. (2018) · Learning Culture and Social Interaction · doi:10.1016/j.lcsi.2018.07.003 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Understanding students’ perceptions of fairness in group work assessment: key conditions and implications
Rasooli, A., Pitt, E., Turner, J., Varga‐Atkins, T., Moindrot, W., Preston, S., & Asgari, S. (2025) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2025.2502587 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Further, previous studies have shown that student gender (Aryadoust 2016), friendship (Harris and Brown 2013), and international status (Stonewall, C. Dorneich, and Rongerude 2024) impact fairness of peer assessments.”
Teacher instructional practices and strategies for student self-assessment
Pastore, S., Yan, Z., & Lao, H. (2025) · Assessment in Education Principles Policy and Practice · doi:10.1080/0969594x.2025.2510204 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Research evidence, furthermore, addressed how teachers challenge providing feedback to students (Gamlem, 2015; Harris & Brown, 2013).”

Authors: Harris, L. R., & Brown, G. T. L.
Affiliations: Central Queensland University (AU)
University of Auckland (NZ)
Corresponding author: Harris, Lois R.
ORCID: Harris, Lois R.
Brown, Gavin T.L.
Venue: Teaching and Teacher Education
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2013-11
Volume: 36
Pages: 101-111
ISSN: 0742-051X (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.tate.2013.07.008
OpenAlex: W2090543156
Cited by: 193
References: 68
Citations by year: 2026: 6 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 23 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 2
FWCI: 54.90
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
figshare.com
Licence: cc-by
Locations: Teaching and Teacher Education (publishedVersion)
Acquire (CQUniversity) (submittedVersion)
Research Bank (Australian Catholic University) (submittedVersion)
Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
ResearchSpace (University of Auckland) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
Funders: University of Auckland
Hong Kong Institute of Education
Ministry of Education- New Zealand
Topics: Social Sciences › Education › Student Assessment and Feedback
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
Social Sciences › Education › Evaluation of Teaching Practices
Keywords: peer assessment, self-assessment, student learning improvement, teacher perceptions, student perceptions, student self-regulation, assessment accuracy, classroom implementation

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