Student Conceptions of Feedback: Impact on Self-Regulation, Self-Efficacy, and Academic Achievement
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: Lecturers give feedback on assessed work in the hope that students will take it on board and use it to help regulate their learning for the next assessment. However, little is known about how students' conceptions of feedback relate to students' self-regulated learning and self-efficacy beliefs and academic performance. AIMS: This study explores student beliefs about the role and purpose of feedback and the relationship of those beliefs to self-reported self-regulation and self-efficacy, and achievement. SAMPLE: A total of 278 university students in a general education course on learning theory and approaches in a research-intensive university. METHODS: Self-reported survey responses for students' conceptions of feedback (SCoF), self-regulation (SRL), academic self-efficacy (ASE), and Grade Point Average (GPA) were evaluated first with confirmatory factor analysis and then interlinked in a structural equation model. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Three SCoF factors predicted SRL and/or GPA. The SCoF factor 'I use feedback' had positive associations with SRL (β = .44), GPA (β = .45), and ASE (β = .15). The SCoF factors 'tutor/marker comments' and 'peers help' both had negative relations to GPA (β = -.41 and -.16, respectively). 'Peers help' had a positive connection to SRL (β = .21). ASE itself made a small contribution to overall GPA (β = .16), while SRL had no statistically significant relation to GPA. The model indicates the centrality of believing that feedback exists to guide next steps in learning and thus contributes to SRL, ASE, and increased GPA.
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Correlational studies have provided support for the relationships that conceptions have with self-efficacy, goal orientation, self-regulated learning behaviors, satisfaction with feedback, and academic performance.
“Correlational studies have provided support for the relationships that conceptions have with other motivational variables, including self-efficacy (Brown et al., 2016;Fatima et al., 2021) and goal orientation (Rakoczy et al., 2013), self-regulated learning (SRL) behaviors (Brown et al., 2016), satisfaction with feedback (Robinson et al., 2013), and academic performance (Brown et al., 2016).”
From The Next Black Box of Formative Assessment: A Model of the Internal Mechanisms of Feedback Processing (2022) · cites this paper as Brown et al., 2016
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“Students’ beliefs about the helpfulness of peer feedback were found to be positively associated with (self-reported) self-regulation and negatively associated with GPA (Brown et al. 2016).”
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“Positive Feedback as an Intervention to Increase Self-Efficacy Previous research has shown that false normative positive feedback not only affects performance, but also self-efficacy, and such feedback has been successfully applied to manipulate self-efficacy (e.g., Reynolds, 2006; Beattie et al., 2016; Brown et al.,…”
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“Self-efficacy is a key variable mediating self-regulation, feedback perception, and achievement (Brown et al., 2016), and feedback perception can vary according to learners’ level of self-efficacy.”
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“A modified Student Conceptions of Feedback Questionnaire-II (Brown et al., 2016; Irving & Peterson, 2006) was used to measure students’ perception of teacher feedback, including both using feedback to improve knowledge understanding and building affective connections with teachers.”
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“In more general fi ndings, Brown, Peterson, and Yao (2016) noted that negative feedback was negatively associated with GPA and achievement.”
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“In this regard, the whole feedback system is important, providing information about the evaluation of individuals’ performances and affecting academic self-efficacy and self-regulation of learning (Brown et al., 2016).”
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Higher Education in Times of Covid-19: Giving Online Feedback Implementation Another Look
Hast, M. (2020) · Higher Education Studies · doi:10.5539/hes.v11n1p1 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Finally, availability of more time means students can engage more carefully with the feedback, which seems to be associated with increased levels academic self-efficacy (Brown et al., 2016), meaning online feedback provision may allow for more self-paced engagement.”
BackgroundImpact of gender on sources of students’ self-efficacy in Mathematics in Tanzanian secondary schools
Kyaruzi, F. M. (2021) · International Journal of School & Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/21683603.2021.1945512 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“In particular, these results imply that feedback as part of the learning environment promotes students’ self-efficacy, which subsequently leads to better performance (Brown et al., 2016).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialAlemdağ, E., & Yıldırım, Z. (2022) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-022-10115-x · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Finally, Brown et al. ( 2016) determined that students’ use of self-regulatory learning strategies was positively correlated with conceptions about the active use of feedback and the help of peer feedback.”
BackgroundFuentes, A. C. M., Tapia-Ladino, M., & Gutiérrez, B. M. A. (2019) · Perfiles Educativos · doi:10.22201/iisue.24486167e.2019.167.59208 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Fu, W.-S., Zhang, J., Zhang, D., Li, T., Lan, M., & Liu, N. (2025) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.1177/07356331241313126 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“When learners perceive feedback as a means of elucidating learning objectives and addressing de fi ciencies, they are inclined to utilize it for self-regulated learning, which in turn enhances self-ef fi cacy (Brown et al., 2016).”
Exploring the emotions of international students about their feedback experiences
Olave-Encina, K., Moni, K., & Renshaw, P. D. (2020) · Higher Education Research & Development · doi:10.1080/07294360.2020.1786020 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Brown, G., & Harris, L. R. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316832134.007 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Riyanto, R., & Aryulina, D. (2020) · International Journal of Instruction · doi:10.29333/iji.2020.13327a · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Cao, H.-Q., & Han, C. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1326746 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Hong, S., & Hanafi, Z. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-71696-6 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Apps, T., Beckman, K., Bennett, S., Dalgarno, B., Kennedy, G. E., & Lockyer, L. (2019) · The Internet and Higher Education · doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2019.03.004 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Patterns of motivational beliefs among high-, medium-, and low-achieving English learners in China
Ma, L., Jiao, Y., Xiao, L., Liu, Q., & Liu, J. (2022) · IRAL - International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching · doi:10.1515/iral-2022-0108 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Suamuang, W., Easter, M. A., & Suksakulchai, S. (2021) · Malaysian Journal of Learning and Instruction · doi:10.32890/mjli2021.18.1.4 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“In higher education, instructor feedback also helps students to raise their academic performance (Brown et al. 2016).”
BackgroundInfluentialModerating Factors in University Students’ Self-Evaluation for Sustainability
León, S. P., Augusto-Landa, J. M., & García‐Martínez, I. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13084199 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Related to this, study strategies are positioned as another factor to consider in predicting academic performance [43].”
MethodHast, M., & Healy, C. (2018) · Journal of Teaching and Learning with Technology · doi:10.14434/jotlt.v7i1.23806 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Kyaruzi, F., Strijbos, J.-W., & Ufer, S. (2020) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2020.559122 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“…of the plenary feedback discussions, because existing feedback questionnaire scales either measure students’ perceptions to feedback aspects in general (e.g., King et al., 2009; Brown et al., 2016) or measure perceptions immediately after a specific performance (e.g., Strijbos et al., 2010).”
BackgroundXu, J. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-02596-5 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“…(e.g., teaching and family practices) could affect students’ attempts at self-regulation (e.g., to help inform and guide their learning practices; Brown et al., 2016; Wolters, 2011; Zimmerman, 2008), homework environment management can be influenced by adult support and monitoring, including…”
Zakariya, Y. F., Midttun, Ø., Nyberg, S. O., & Gjesteland, T. (2022) · Mathematics · doi:10.3390/math10132164 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Instrumental music teachers’ development of feedback across the lifespan: A qualitative study
de Bruin, L. R. (2023) · International Journal of Music Education · doi:10.1177/02557614231151445 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“…teachers’ direct feedback/feed-up/feed-forward information, students may also be enculturated into capabilities of seeking and dealing with feedback information, the capacity to create internal self-assessment, and attribute levels of ‘success’ or ‘not yet’, and seeking help (Brown et al., 2016).”
BackgroundEXPLORING THE PROBLEMS IN TEACHER EVALUATION PROCESS AND ITS PERCEIVED IMPACT ON TEACHER PERFORMANCE
Rafiq, S., Afzal, A., & Kamran, F. (2022) · Gomal University Journal of Research · doi:10.51380/gujr-38-04-08 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Revisión sistemática sobre autoeficacia en universitarios: conceptualización y medición
Mújica, A. D., Sáez-Delgado, F., Cobo-Rendon, R. C., Valle, M. D., López-Angulo, Y., & Villalobos, M. V. P. (2022) · Interdisciplinaria Revista de Psicología y Ciencias Afines · doi:10.16888/interd.2022.39.2.3 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
When do students provide more peer feedback? The roles of performance and prior feedback experiences
Zong, Z., Schunn, C. D., & Wang, Y. (2023) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-023-09640-w · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Such experiences that iteratively guide changes in behavior can be conceptualized in terms of self-regulation, a framework that has previously been invoked as relevant to peer review (Harris et al., 2015; Brown et al., 2016 ; Meusen-Beekman et al., 2016).”
BackgroundPinedo, L., Panadero, E., Ruiz, J. F., & Rodríguez-Hernández, C. F. (2023) · Assessment in Education Principles Policy and Practice · doi:10.1080/0969594x.2023.2284630 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“For example, trusting and receiving feedback from teachers or tutors has been associated with lower academic performance (Brown et al., 2016).”
BackgroundAmiruddin, A., Sunardi, S., & Setialaksana, W. (2024) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2023.1258298 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Rüth, M., Jansen, M., & Kaspar, K. (2024) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12994 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Formative Feedback in Online Distance Language Learning
Taskiran, A., & Yazici, M. (2021) · Motivation, Volition, and Engagement in Online Distance Learning · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-7681-6.ch005 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Cristi-González, R., Mella-Huenul, Y., Fuentealba-Ortiz, C., Salcedo, A. S., & García-Hormazábal, R. (2023) · Revista de Estudios y Experiencias en Educación · doi:10.21703/rexe.v22i50.1686 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Rose, S. E., Taylor, L., & Jones, S. E. (2024) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2024.2390933 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“…may relate to their perceptions of feedback and engagement with feedback. given that engagement with feedback is correlated with attainment (Brown, Peterson, and Yao 2016; Adams et al. 2020), we assumed that the findings from studies on identities and attainment, as discussed above, would…”
Conscientiousness in Teams Completing Creative Tasks: Does it Predict?
Taggar, S. (2020) · The Journal of Creative Behavior · doi:10.1002/jocb.453 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Gao, X., & Brown, G. (2023) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci13111090 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Effectiveness of Automated Formative Feedback in an Online Tutorial for Promoting Summarizing
Barkela, V., & Leuchter, M. (2024) · Journal of Educational Technology Development and Exchange · doi:10.18785/jetde.1701.04 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Active Learning Methods for Sustainable Education Development
Cakula, S. (2021) · Rural Environment. Education. Personality · doi:10.22616/reep.2021.14.006 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Desarrollo de diseños educativos dinámicos
Tirado, F., & Hernández, J. P. (2021) · Perfiles Educativos · doi:10.22201/iisue.24486167e.2021.172.59490 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Manipulating the consequences of tests: how Shanghai teens react to different consequences
Zhao, A., Brown, G., & Meissel, K. (2020) · Educational Research and Evaluation · doi:10.1080/13803611.2021.1963938 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“…inserted to the Importance construct, because having feedback regarding tests results has been found to have a positive impact on students’ learning (Brown et al., 2016) and the common practice in China of students keeping a notebook consisting of errors they made in tests (cuo ti ji; Zhou,…”
BackgroundZong, Z., & Schunn, C. D. (2023) · International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning · doi:10.1007/s11412-023-09401-4 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
van Wijk, E. V., van Blankenstein, F. V., Donkers, J., Janse, R., Bustraan, J., Adelmeijer, L. G. M., Dubois, E. A., Dekker, F., & Langers, A. (2024) · Advances in Health Sciences Education · doi:10.1007/s10459-024-10324-4 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“This scale consists of seven 6-point, positively packed Likert-items, and is part of the validated, revised version of the Students Conceptions of Feedback (SCoF) Questionnaire (Brown et al., 2016 ).”
InfluentialHwang, S. (2025) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci15070804 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Exploring Accounting Teachers’ Effective Implementation of Assessment for Learning in the Classroom
Motsoeneng, T. J., & Moreeng, B. B. (2023) · Research in Social Sciences and Technology · doi:10.46303/ressat.2023.42 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“However, studies indicate that not all feedback that is provided to the learners contributes to improved learning, which limits the usefulness of A f L, as well as feedback to provide precise information on what is wrong and how it can be corrected (Brown et al., 2016; Harris et al., 2014).”
BackgroundPromoting new users’ online health consultation services usage behavior strategically
Chen, A. H., Chu, W., & Peng, N. (2024) · Health Marketing Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07359683.2024.2340196 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Second, since Bandura’s (1977) work, the concept of self-efficacy has received additional attention from researchers in a wide range of subjects, such as education studies, leisure research, and healthcare studies (Brown et al., 2016; Johnson, 1999; Sharma et al., 2022; Shea & Bidjerano, 2010).”
InfluentialPercepções de estudantes do ensino superior sobre o feedback docente e desempenho acadêmico
Silva, J. D. C. R., & Carvalho, C. (2021) · Revista Brasileira de Educação · doi:10.1590/s1413-24782021260081 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Multilevel latent profile analysis of Korean middle school student perceptions of teaching methods
Kim, N., & Son, Y. (2021) · Asia Pacific Education Review · doi:10.1007/s12564-021-09721-w · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“A substantial quantum of research has demonstrated that the views of students on their instruction and assessment exert discriminant effects on their learning (Brookhart, 2013; Brown & Hirschfeld, 2008; Brown et al., 2016; Jo & Sohn, 2018; McMillan, 2016).”
BackgroundNew Zealand students’ test-taking motivation: an experimental study examining the effects of stakes
Zhao, A., Brown, G., & Meissel, K. (2022) · Assessment in Education Principles Policy and Practice · doi:10.1080/0969594x.2022.2101043 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“An additional item (‘I would like to know where I went wrong in the test’) was inserted to the ‘Importance’ construct because having feedback regarding tests results has been found to have positive impact on students’ learning (Brown et al., 2016).”
BackgroundSociomathematical norms in online learning in the COVID-19 pandemic period
Maarif, S., Oktarina, N., Sessu, S., et al. (2022) · International Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education (IJERE) · doi:10.11591/ijere.v11i4.23046 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Tao, S., & Qin, W. (2025) · Frontiers in Language Sciences · doi:10.3389/flang.2025.1453230 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
The role of feedback self-efficacy in student feedback engagement
Bassleer, M., Schelfhout, S., Fonteyne, L., Duyck, W., & Dirix, N. (2025) · Studies In Educational Evaluation · doi:10.1016/j.stueduc.2025.101520 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Durak, H. Y., & Onan, A. (2026) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2026.2617987 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“The literature emphasizes that feedback improves academic performance (Brown et al., 2016; Matcha et al., 2019; Núñez-Peña et al., 2015; Yildiz Durak, 2024).”
Bejtic, Z. (2024) · International Journal of Advanced Corporate Learning (iJAC) · doi:10.3991/ijac.v17i2.45237 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
The sense of belonging reduces ingroup favoritism in children
Park, J. H., & Jin, K. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1059415 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Exploring the Type and Quality of Peer Feedback in a Graduate-Level Blended Course
Erbilgin, E., Robinson, J. M., Jarrah, A. M., Johnson, J. D., & Gningue, S. M. (2023) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci13060548 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Evans, C., Kay, W. K., Amici-Dargan, S., González, R. D. M., Donert, K., & Rutherford, S. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1357939 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
An exploratory field study of students’ memory for written feedback comments
Winstone, N., & Nash, R. A. (2024) · Assessment in Education Principles Policy and Practice · doi:10.1080/0969594x.2024.2367029 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Students’ perception of and response to their teachers’ feedback is critical because ‘while feedback may generate learning effects, these may not be automatically translated into better performance on future assessments’ (Brown et al., 2016, p. 608).”
Factors affecting assignment completion in higher education
Suamuang, W., Suksakulchai, S., & Murphy, E. (2020) · Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education · doi:10.1108/jarhe-12-2019-0309 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Hast, M. (2017) · Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education · doi:10.47408/jldhe.v0i12.438 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Rajabbeigi, H., Schmieder-Ramirez, J., Dellaneve, J., & Amin, F. (2023) · Journal of Comparative & International Higher Education · doi:10.32674/jcihe.v15i4.5350 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Aspects of interest include self-efficacy (Fonteyne et al., 2017; Schunk, 2012; Zimmerman et al., 1992), self-regulated learning strategies (Lucieer et al., 2016; Schunk, 2012; Schunk & Zimmerman, 1998), student–faculty communication (Poyrazli & Isaiah, 2018), and feedback (Brown et al., 2016).”
Kim, J., Lee, K., Kim, W., Jeong, N., Kim, J., & Song, H. (2024) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2024.2425881 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Previous researchers have identified the factors associated with feedback evaluation, such as feedback accuracy (Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick, 2006), the feedback provider’s credibility (van de Ridder et al., 2015), and the recipient’s self-efficacy (Brown et al., 2016).”
Psychometric properties of the Feedback Literacy Behaviour Scale (FLBS) for Chinese students
Zhu, J., Yang, Y., & Yan, Z. (2025) · Asia Pacific Journal of Education · doi:10.1080/02188791.2025.2537390 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Yang, Y., Yan, Z., Zhu, J., Guo, W., Wu, J.-S., & Huang, B. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1637028 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Moreover, enhancing students’ feedback self-efficacy has improved academic outcomes, particularly when integrated with instructional strategies that promote mastery experiences, peer modeling, and structured reflection (Brown et al., 2016; Chan and Lam, 2010).”
InfluentialFeedback Assisted by Technology: A Systematic Review of Empirical Research
Huang, W., Stephens, J. M., & Brown, G. (2025) · International Journal of Technology in Education · doi:10.46328/ijte.1061 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“The ultimate aim of TEF systems is to improve learners’ performance, and the effectiveness of feedback depends on the choices and actions of the key actors in the social and cultural conditions of assessment (Brown et al., 2016).”
Sarsekeyeva, Z. Y., Zhekibayeva, B. A., Zhukenova, G. B., Есентаевна, С. Н., & Mazhenova, R. B. (2019) · Science for Education Today · doi:10.15293/2658-6762.1906.01 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Guadiana, E. A. S., & Córdova, K. E. G. (2022) · REOP - Revista Española de Orientación y Psicopedagogía · doi:10.5944/reop.vol.33.num.2.2022.34358 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
- Authors
- Brown, G. T. L., Peterson, E. R., & Yao, E. S.
- Affiliations
- University of Auckland (NZ)
- Corresponding author
- Brown, Gavin T. L.
- Venue
- British Journal of Educational Psychology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2016-09-09
- Volume
- 86
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 606-629
- ISSN
- 0007-0998 (ISSN-L)
- 2044-8279
- OpenAlex
- W2509734189
- Cited by
- 198
- References
- 59
- Citations by year
- 2026: 26 · 2025: 25 · 2024: 31 · 2023: 26 · 2022: 25 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 1
- FWCI
- 35.51
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- British Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- ResearchSpace (University of Auckland) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Faculty of Education Summer Scholar Programme
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Student Assessment and Feedback
- Social Sciences › Education › Evaluation of Teaching Practices
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Keywords
- student self-regulation, academic self-efficacy, academic performance, grade point average, peer feedback, instructor feedback, university students, higher education assessment
- MeSH terms
- Self-Control, Achievement, Adult, Female, Humans, Learning, Male, Students, Universities, Self Efficacy, Feedback, Psychological, Young Adult
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