Cited by 659Stress Responses and CortisolAnimal Behavior and Welfare StudiesAdrenal Hormones and Disorders

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Analysis of endogenous cortisol concentrations in the hair of rhesus macaques

Davenport, Matthew D., Tiefenbacher, Stefan, Lutz, Corrine K., Novak, Melinda A., Meyer, Jerrold S.·2006·General and Comparative Endocrinology

DOI 10.1016/j.ygcen.2006.01.005

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Abstract

Short-term changes in activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) system are routinely assessed by measuring glucocorticoid or metabolite concentrations in plasma, saliva, urine, or feces. However, there are no current methods for determining long-term (i.e., weeks or months) activity of this system. Herein, we describe the development and validation of a simple procedure for measuring cortisol concentrations in the hair of rhesus macaques. This procedure involves two brief isopropanol washes of the hair strands to remove surface contaminants, subsequent powdering of the washed and dried hair, a 24-h methanol extraction followed by evaporation of the solvent and reconstitution of the extract in assay buffer, and finally analysis of the extracted cortisol by a sensitive and specific enzyme immunoassay. Our results confirm the specificity of the procedure for cortisol, show that proximal and distal segments of hair do not differ in their cortisol concentration, and demonstrate that a significant and prolonged stressful experience produces a significant increase in hair cortisol. This new procedure should be valuable for assessing baseline HPA activity in nonhuman primates (and, with appropriate validation, in other species as well) over relatively long periods of time, and also for monitoring chronic stress that might be associated with various experimental manipulations.

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The Effect of Body Region on Hair Cortisol Concentration in Common Marmosets (Callithrix jacchus)
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Behavioral and hormonal changes following social instability in young rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta).
Wooddell, L. J., Kaburu, S., & Dettmer, A. M. (2021) · Journal of comparative psychology · doi:10.1037/com0000297 · Cited by 5
Breastfeeding and cortisol in hair in children
Ludvigsson, J., Faresjö, Å., & Faresjö, T. (2021) · International Breastfeeding Journal · doi:10.1186/s13006-021-00419-8 · Cited by 6
“There is no simple way to determine stress over longer time but in recent years cortisol in hair, reflecting the cortisol concentrations of the body for some months since hair grows ca 1 cm/month [4], has been used as biomarker for long-term stress both in animals [5, 6] and in humans [4, 7, 8].”
Background
Association between hair cortisol concentration and behavioral difficulties in children and adolescents
Jahns, C. C., Poulain, T., Vogel, M., & Kieß, W. (2022) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2022.105795 · Cited by 5
Elevated hair cortisol and decreased hair testosterone indicates chronic disruption of the HPA/HPG axis and is reflective of poor welfare in Rhesus Macaques used as performing (dancing) monkeys in Pakistan
Akbar, M., & Evans, N. P. (2023) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2023.106111 · Cited by 5
Trio housing of adult male rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta): Methodology and outcome predictors
Ruhde, A. A., Baker, K. C., Russell‐Lodrigue, K., Blanchard, J., & Bohm, R. P. (2020) · Journal of Medical Primatology · doi:10.1111/jmp.12469 · Cited by 5
Hair cortisol level as a molecular biomarker in retinitis pigmentosa patients
Mateos-Olivares, M., Sobas, E. M., Puertas‐Neyra, K., Peralta‐Ramírez, M. I., González-Pérez, R., Martín‐Vallejo, J., García‐Vázquez, C., Coco, R. M., Pastor, J. C., Pastor‐Idoate, S., et al. (2022) · Experimental Eye Research · doi:10.1016/j.exer.2022.109019 · Cited by 5
The Social and Thermal Competence of Wild Vervet Monkeys
McFarland, R., Henzi, S. P., & Barrett, L. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781139019941.015 · Cited by 5
Cortisol Extraction from Sturgeon Fin and Jawbone Matrices
Nejad, J. G., Ataallahi, M., Salmanzadeh, M. H., Park, K. T., Lee, H. G., Shoae, A., Rahimi, A., Sung, K. I., & Park, K. H. (2019) · Journal of Visualized Experiments · doi:10.3791/59961 · Cited by 5
Exploring the effects of oily fish consumption on measures of acute and long-term stress in healthy 8–9-year-old children: the FiSK Junior randomised trial
Teisen, M. N., Vuholm, S., Rantanen, J. M., Christensen, J. H., Damsgaard, C. T., & Lauritzen, L. (2020) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s000711452000519x · Cited by 5
“The cortisol analysis was performed at Department of Psychology, Technical University of Dresden, Germany as previously described(26).”
Method
Preschoolers' Hair Cortisol Levels Are Linked to Parental Income
Henley, P., & Koren, G. (2014) · Therapeutic Drug Monitoring · doi:10.1097/ftd.0b013e31829f0ba6 · Cited by 5
Behavior and Development
Ditmar, M. F. (2010) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-06561-0.00002-1 · Cited by 7
Improving the Welfare of Laboratory-Housed Primates Through the Use of Positive Reinforcement Training: Practicalities of Implementation
Bowell, V. A. (2010) · Cited by 5
Brief Introduction to Welfare Assessment: A ‘Toolbox’ of Techniques
Latham, N. (2010) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781444318777.ch6 · Cited by 5
Is Smart Working Beneficial for Workers' Well-being? A Longitudinal Investigation of Smart Working, Workload and Hair Cortisol/Dehydroepiandrosterone Sulfate during the COVID-19 PandemicPreprint
Falco, A., Girardi, D., Elfering, A., Peric, T., Pividori, I., & Corso, L. D. (2023) · Preprints.org · doi:10.20944/preprints202303.0199.v1 · Cited by 4
Supervisor support and virtual leadership moderate the association between technostress creators and strain in remote work: Evidence based on hair cortisol and occupational physician’s hetero-evaluations
Girardi, D., Rapisarda, S., Arcucci, E., Corso, L. D., Riedl‬, R., Pividori, I., & Falco, A. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0323385 · Cited by 9
“Briefly, twenty-five milligrams of hair were weighted, and each hair strand was washed twice using H2O for 3 min and then twice with isopropanol for 3 min, in accordance with Davenport et al. [45].”
Influence of Hair Pigmentation on Cortisol Concentrations Under Heat Stress in Holstein, Montbéliarde, and Brown Swiss Dairy Cows
Brahmi, E., Basiricò, L., Ataallahi, M., Bernabucci, U., & Bouraoui, R. (2025) · Ruminants · doi:10.3390/ruminants5040060 · Cited by 4
“Hair cortisol separation was performed in accordance with Davenport et al. [16] and Ghassemi Nejad et al. [17].”
Cortisol levels across the lifespan in common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus)
Lopez, M. R., Seidl, A., & Phillips, K. A. (2024) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.23597 · Cited by 4
“Long ‐ term HPA axis activity over weeks or months, depending upon the length of hair analyzed, can be quantified via analysis of hair cortisol content (Davenport et al., 2006).”
Background
Physiological welfare indicators in wild cetaceans: Epidermal cortisol and oxytocin concentrations in stranded striped dolphins
Agustí, C., Guix, L., Carbajal, A., Domingo, M., López‐Béjar, M., Manteca, X., & Talló-Parra, O. (2024) · Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A Molecular & Integrative Physiology · doi:10.1016/j.cbpa.2024.111793 · Cited by 4
Is hypercortisolism in anorexia nervosa detectable using hair samples?
Ritschel, F., Clas, S., Geisler, D., Haas, V. K., Seidel, M., Steding, J., Roessner, V., Kirschbaum, C., & Ehrlich, S. (2017) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2017.11.010 · Cited by 4
Detection of cortisol, estradiol, and testosterone in archaeological human hair from the Dakhleh Oasis, Egypt
Tisdale, E., Williams, L. J., Schultz, J. J., & Wheeler, S. M. (2019) · Journal of Archaeological Science Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2019.101968 · Cited by 4
Bobcat Hair Cortisol Correlates with Land Use and Climate
Carroll, R. P., Litvaitis, M. K., & Foxall, T. (2021) · Journal of Wildlife Management · doi:10.1002/jwmg.22029 · Cited by 4
Non-Invasive Measurement of Progesterone and Cortisol Metabolites in the Faeces of Captive Female Rusa unicolor at Zoo Negara, Malaysia and Its Reproductive and Stress Behaviour
Hamid, N. H. A., Nadzir, M. N. H. M., Omar, J., Annavi, G., Jaafar, W. N. F. B. W., & Salleh, A. (2022) · Pertanika journal of science & technology · doi:10.47836/pjst.30.2.40 · Cited by 4
“The quantification in matrices such as faeces seems to be a good indicator of chronic stress, potentially also related to the reproductive status of the animal (Davenport et al., 2006).”
Background
Reducing Stocking Densities and Using Cooling Systems for More Adapted Pigs to High Temperatures When Reared in Intensive Conditions
Contreras-Jodar, A., Escribano, D., Cerón, J. M. C., López-Arjona, M., Aymerich, P., Soldevila, C., Fàbrega, E., & Dalmau, A. (2023) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani13152424 · Cited by 4
“[17] and analyzed by means of AlphaLISA®, already validated for the hair of pigs [18].”
Method
Amniotic fluid cortisol predicts neonatal and infant development in non-stressed rhesus monkeys: Implications for prenatal stress
Otridge, J., Meyer, J. S., & Dettmer, A. M. (2023) · Neurotoxicology and Teratology · doi:10.1016/j.ntt.2023.107308 · Cited by 4
Hair and plasma cortisol throughout the first 3 years of development in infant rhesus macaques, Macaca mulatta
Pritchard, A. J., Capitanio, J. P., Rosso, L. A. D., McCowan, B., & Vandeleest, J. J. (2023) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.22437 · Cited by 5
It’s all in the hair: Association between changes in hair cortisol concentrations in reaction to the COVID-19 pandemic and post-traumatic stress symptoms in children over time
Bilodeau-Houle, A., Raymond, C., & Marin, M. (2024) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2024.107019 · Cited by 4
“As described by Raymond et al. (2022), the protocol validated by Davenport et al. (2006) was used for hair washing and steroid extraction.”
Method
Thoughtful or distant farmer: Exploring the influence of human-animal relationships on rabbit stress, behaviour, and emotional responses in two distinct living environments
Fetiveau, M., Savietto, D., Janczak, A. M., Fortun‐Lamothe, L., & Fillon, V. (2024) · Animal Welfare · doi:10.1017/awf.2024.54 · Cited by 4
“The samples were stored at – 20°C until corticosterone extraction, following the method adapted from Davenport et al .”
Effekt von Humortraining auf Stress, Heiterkeit und Depression bei Patienten mit koronarer Herzkrankheit und therapierefraktärer Angina pectoris
Voss, M., Wild, B., von Hirschhausen, E., Fuchs, T. A., & Ong, P. (2019) · Herz · doi:10.1007/s00059-019-4813-8 · Cited by 4
Investigating the influence of shift work rosters on stress measured as cortisol in hair during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic
Casjens, S., Tisch, A., Brenscheidt, F., Beermann, B., Brüning, T., Behrens, T., & Rabstein, S. (2022) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2022.105858 · Cited by 4
Physiological Measures of Welfare
Capitanio, J. P., Vandeleest, J. J., & Hannibal, D. L. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-82708-3_10 · Cited by 6
Hair cortisol concentrations and daily life stress in 7-year-old children at familial high-risk of schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. The Danish High Risk and Resilience Study – VIA 7
Brandt, J. M., Hemager, N., Ellersgaard, D., Gregersen, M., Søndergaard, A., Ohland, J., Spang, K. S., Christiani, C. J., Burton, B. K., Greve, A. N., et al. (2023) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2023.110750 · Cited by 4
Chronic exposure to multiple stressors alters the salivary proteome of piglets
Prims, S., Ostade, X. V., Ayuso, M., Dom, M., Raemdonck, G. V., Cruchten, S. J. M. V., Casteleyn, C. R., & Ginneken, C. J. V. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0286455 · Cited by 4
“The collected hairs, in which cortisol had accumulated during the experiment, were washed twice for 3 min with 10 mL isopropanol on an orbital shaker to remove dust and sebum [40].”
Method
Savanna Monkey Taxonomy
Turner, T. R., Schmitt, C. A., & Cramer, J. D. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781139019941.003 · Cited by 5
Hair cortisol moderates the association between obstetric complications and child wellbeing
Fuchs, A., Dittrich, K., Neukel, C., Winter, S., Zietlow, A., Kluczniok, D., Herpertz, S. C., Attar, C. H., Möhler, E., Fydrich, T., et al. (2020) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2020.104845 · Cited by 5
Marmosets and tamarins
Buchanan‐Smith, H. M. (2024) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119555278.ch37 · Cited by 4
Harmonisation of welfare indicators for macaques and marmosets used or bred for research
Prescott, M. J., Leach, M. C., & Truelove, M. A. (2023) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.109380.3 · Cited by 3
“Where physiological measurements are required, the least invasive and most refined method that will provide the necessary data should be used (e.g. Davenport et al ., 2006; Rennie & Buchanan-Smith, 2006; Smiley Evans et al ., 2015).”
Method
Factors Affecting Hair Cortisol Concentration in Domestic Dogs: A Focus on Factors Related to Dogs and Their Guardians
Mariti, C., Russo, G., Mazzoni, C., Borrelli, C., Gori, E., Habermaass, V., & Marchetti, V. (2025) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani15131901 · Cited by 3
“…the degree to which hair cortisol is derived from the circulation or from local synthesis in the hair follicle and whether it comes from the free fraction in plasma is still uncertain [5], it has been demonstrated that significant and prolonged stress may lead to a marked increase in HCC [12].”

Authors: Davenport, M. D., Tiefenbacher, S., Lutz, C. K., Novak, M. A., & Meyer, J. S.
Affiliations: Harvard University (US)
University of Massachusetts Amherst (US)
Corresponding author: Meyer, Jerrold S.
ORCID: Lutz, Corrine K.
Novak, Melinda A.
Meyer, Jerrold S.
Venue: General and Comparative Endocrinology
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2006-07
Volume: 147
Issue: 3
Pages: 255-261
ISSN: 0016-6480 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2006.01.005
OpenAlex: W2074364102
Cited by: 659
References: 31
Citations by year: 2026: 18 · 2025: 29 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 41 · 2022: 35 · 2021: 53 · 2020: 44 · 2019: 73 · 2018: 33 · 2017: 52 · 2016: 53 · 2015: 35 · 2014: 31 · 2013: 28 · 2012: 30
FWCI: 3.82
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: General and Comparative Endocrinology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Center for Research Resources (#RR11122, RR00 168, R24RR011122)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Animal Science and Zoology › Animal Behavior and Welfare Studies
Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Adrenal Hormones and Disorders
Keywords: hair cortisol, rhesus monkeys, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, chronic stress, non-human primates, stress biomarkers, enzyme immunoassay validation
MeSH terms: Animals, Hair, Hydrocortisone, Immunoenzyme Techniques, Macaca mulatta, Male, Saliva, Sensitivity and Specificity, Skin, Stress, Physiological, Time Factors

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Analysis of endogenous cortisol concentrations in the hair of rhesus macaques

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