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High self-perceived stress and many stressors, but normal diurnal cortisol rhythm, in adults with ADHD (attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder)
Abstract
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults is associated with significant impairment in many life activities and may thus increase the risk of chronic stress in everyday life. We compared adults with a DSM-IV ADHD diagnosis (n=28) with healthy controls (n=28) regarding subjective stress and amounts of stressors in everyday life, diurnal salivary cortisol in the everyday environment and salivary cortisol before and after cognitive stress in a laboratory setting. The association between cortisol concentrations and impulsivity was also investigated. Consistent with assumptions, individuals with ADHD reported significantly more self-perceived stress than controls, and subjective stress correlated with the amount of stressors in everyday life. The two groups were comparable with respect to overall diurnal cortisol levels and rhythm, as well as in pre- and post-stress cortisol concentrations. Post-stress cortisol (but not baseline cortisol) concentration was positively correlated with impulsivity. The group with high post-stress cortisol also reported more symptoms of depression and anxiety, as well as self-perceived stress and stressors in every-day life. The diagnosis of ADHD significantly increased the risk of belonging to the group with high post-stress cortisol levels. The results in this study warrant a focus not only on the primary diagnosis of ADHD, but also calls for a broader assessment of stressors and subjective stress in everyday life, as well as support comprising stress management and coping skills.
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“Daily rhythms in salivary cortisol in 28 adults with ADHD were examined in a case-control study, and no difference was reported in ADHD compared to control (although there was not a complete diurnal sampling procedure utilised in this study, with cortisol assessment taking place at awakening, 30 min after awakening, between 17:00 and 18:00 and at 23:00; Hirvikoski et al. 2009).”
From A systematic review of circadian function, chronotype and chronotherapy in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (2017) · cites this paper as Hirvikoski et al. 2009
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Self-citationHirvikoski, T., Waaler, E., Alfredsson, J., Pihlgren, C., Holmström, A., Johnson, A., Rück, J., Wiwe, C., Bothén, P., & Nordström, A.-L. (2011) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2011.01.001 · Cited by 182
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Perceived stress and ADHD symptoms in adults
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“…perceived stress complements previous research that demonstrated links between an ADHD diagnosis and higher physiological and subjective stress (Hirvikoski et al., 2009; Lackschewitz et al., 2008); higher occurrence of life stressors, such as financial strain due to medical costs and…”
BackgroundHirvikoski, T., & Blomqvist, M. (2015) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361314543530 · Cited by 128
“The Swedish version of the PSS, based on the original 14-item scale (scored 0–4; total score 0–56), was chosen, and the total PSS score was calculated as a sum of all items (Hirvikoski et al., 2009).”
MethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationInflammation, Anxiety, and Stress in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Saccaro, L. F., Schilliger, Z., Perroud, N. A., & Piguet, C. (2021) · Biomedicines · doi:10.3390/biomedicines9101313 · Cited by 103
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“PTSD is precipitated by a traumatic event, and symptoms of depression, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and schizophrenia are exacerbated by stressor exposure (Newman and Bland, 1994; Hirvikoski et al., 2009).”
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Imeraj, L., Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., Antrop, I., Roeyers, H., Wiersema, R., Bal, S., & Deboutte, D. (2012) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.04.007 · Cited by 90
“Only one study has examined this in adults which reported no effect of ADHD diagnosis (Hirvikoski et al., 2009): Both the overall cortisol levels and the typical diurnal cortisol rhythm, including the awakening response, were normal in ADHD.”
BackgroundCircadian rhythms and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: The what, the when and the why
Coogan, A. N., Baird, A. L., Popa‐Wagner, A., & Thome, J. (2016) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2016.01.006 · Cited by 78
“Studies of the circadian rhythm of cortisol secretion in ADHD indicate a significant phase-delay of the cortisol rhythm relative to wakening time in adult ADHD (Baird et al., 2012), but no changes in the diurnal profile of cortisol under post-stress conditions (Hirvikoski et al., 2009).”
Hirvikoski, T., Lindström, T., Carlsson, J., Waaler, E., Jokinen, J., & Bölte, S. (2017) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2017.04.005 · Cited by 71
“PEGASUS (Hirvikoski et al., 2013) is a psychoeducational group training program for adults with ADHD and their (adult) significant others designed as a first-line treatment, preferably conducted shortly after an established diagnosis and as a complement to pharmacological treatment.”
BackgroundSelf-citationTurel, O., & Bechara, A. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00455 · Cited by 71
“Since the presence of ADHD symptoms often induces stress (Randazzo et al., 2008; Hirvikoski et al., 2009) and reduces people's self-esteem (Bussing et al., 2000; Richman et al., 2010), it is reasonable to assume that the magnitude of cravings to use the SNS is at least in part influenced by such…”
BackgroundBehrmann, J. T., Blaabjerg, J., Jordansen, J., & de López, K. M. J. (2021) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/10870547211050945 · Cited by 57
“Additionally, several studies (Hirvikoski et al., 2009; Lackschewitz et al., 2008) have shown that individuals with ADHD have an elevated physiological stress response and higher levels of selfreported stress compared to control groups.”
Jaremko, K. M., Sterling, R. C., & Bockstaele, E. J. V. (2014) · Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2014.08.006 · Cited by 63
Hirvikoski, T., Waaler, E., Lindström, T., Bölte, S., & Jokinen, J. (2014) · ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders · doi:10.1007/s12402-014-0141-2 · Cited by 60
“…Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Stockholm County Council, Stockholm, Sweden J. Jokinen Department of Clinical Neuroscience/Psychiatry, Karolinska Institutet and Stockholm County Council, Stockholm, Sweden Bolte et al. 2013; Brod et al. 2006; Goodman 2007; Hirvikoski et al. 2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationSensory Over-Responsivity as an Added Dimension in ADHD
Lane, S. J., & Reynolds, S. (2019) · Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnint.2019.00040 · Cited by 70
“…investigators also found that some children with ADHD showed higher cortisol levels following stressors (Hong et al., 2003; White and Mulligan, 2005) and yet still other studies have found no differences between ADHD and control populations (Lackschewitz et al., 2008; Hirvikoski et al., 2009).”
ResultNeuroendocrine Aspects of Tourette Syndrome
Martino, D., Macerollo, A., & Leckman, J. F. (2013) · International review of neurobiology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-411546-0.00009-3 · Cited by 59
Morgensterns, E., Alfredsson, J., & Hirvikoski, T. (2016) · ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders · doi:10.1007/s12402-015-0182-1 · Cited by 48
“Moreover, they completed a questionnaire covering demographic information and current stressors within different life activities (Hirvikoski et al. 2009).”
BackgroundSelf-citationPahnke, J., Hirvikoski, T., Bjureberg, J., Bölte, S., Jokinen, J., Bohman, B., & Lundgren, T. (2019) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2019.04.002 · Cited by 48
Self-citationJawna, K., Blecharz‐Klin, K., Joniec‐Maciejak, I., Wawer, A., Pyrzanowska, J., Piechal, A., Mirowska-Guzel, D. M., & Widy‐Tyszkiewicz, E. (2016) · Phytotherapy Research · doi:10.1002/ptr.5578 · Cited by 47
“…studies have reported that ADHD symptoms are associated with Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. different perceptions of stress, such as a higher degree of exposure to stressors, higher level of perceived stress, and abnormal stress intolerance (Combs et al., 2015; Hirvikoski et al., 2009).”
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“A strong positive association between ADHD symptoms in adulthood and levels of self-perceived stress has also been reported (24).”
BackgroundAdvantages of an ADHD Diagnosis in Adulthood
Fleischmann, A., & Fleischmann, R. H. (2012) · Qualitative Health Research · doi:10.1177/1049732312457468 · Cited by 60
Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in chronic fatigue syndrome patients
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“HPA axis abnormalities with a blunted stress response have also been described in ADHD patients (Hirvikoski et al., 2009; Lackschewitz et al., 2008).”
BackgroundAttention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and physical multimorbidity: A population-based study
Stickley, A., Koyanagi, A., Takahashi, H., Ruchkin, V. V., Inoue, Y., & Kamio, Y. (2017) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2017.07.010 · Cited by 42
How do adolescents with ADHD perceive and experience stress? An interview study
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“A higher perceived stress has also been reported in clinical populations, with higher ratings among ADHD cases compared with controls [12,13].”
ResultCoping Self-Efficacy Mediates the Association Between Child Abuse and ADHD in Adulthood
Singer, M. J., Humphreys, K. L., & Lee, S. S. (2012) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054712465337 · Cited by 43
Adult Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms, Perceived Stress, and Well-Being
Miklósi, M., Máté, O., Somogyi, K., & Szabó, M. (2016) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/nmd.0000000000000472 · Cited by 42
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms and stress-related biomarkers
Vogel, S. W. N., Bijlenga, D., Verduijn, J., Bron, T. I., Beekman, A. T. F., Kooij, J. J. S., & Penninx, B. W. J. H. (2017) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.02.009 · Cited by 38
Corominas, M., Ramos‐Quiroga, J. A., Ferrer, M., Sáez‐Francàs, N., Gloria Palomar, A., Bosch, R., & Casas, M. (2012) · ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders · doi:10.1007/s12402-012-0075-5 · Cited by 40
“Additionally, cortisol was related to impulsivity such that there was a statistically significant positive correlation between impulsivity and post-stress cortisol (Hirvikoski et al. 2009).”
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Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Adrenocortical Axis Function in Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
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Prevalence of ADHD in Accident Victims: Results of the PRADA Study
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Cortisol Response to Stress in Adults with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Corominas, M., Gloria Palomar, A., Ferrer, R., Real, A., Nogueira, M., Montse Corrales, F., Casas, M., & Ramos‐Quiroga, J. A. (2015) · The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1093/ijnp/pyv027 · Cited by 37
“Another study assessing the cortisol levels before and after an arithmetic task also reported no differences between a group of 28 adults with ADHD and a healthy control group (Hirvikoski et al., 2009).”
BackgroundHPA axis reactivity in early childhood: Associations with symptoms and moderation by sex
Kryski, K. R., Smith, H. J., Sheikh, H. I., Singh, S. M., & Hayden, E. P. (2013) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2013.05.002 · Cited by 33
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“These results in an adolescent sample support other studies that have shown that self-reported impulsivity (which is similar to low constraint) is positively correlated with cortisol reactivity in adults (Fishbein, Lozovsky, & Jaffe, 1989; Hirvikoski et al., 2009).”
ResultRucklidge, J. J., Johnstone, J. M., Harrison, R., & Boggis, A. (2011) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2011.06.016 · Cited by 30
“Research consistently shows that based on both self-report and physiological responses to artificially created stressors, adults with ADHD report higher levels of stress, anxiety and mood problems than adults without ADHD (Hirvikoski et al., 2009; Lackschewitz et al., 2008).”
BackgroundPsychological and cortisol reactivity to experimentally induced stress in adults with ADHD
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“This may decrease the individual’s capacity to cope with environmental demands, increasing the likelihood of encountering adversity (Garcia et al., 2012; Hirvikoski et al., 2009).”
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“…associated with increased GC sensitivity, enhanced salivary cortisol response after psychosocial stress as well as with unchanged or lower baseline cortisol levels, respectively (Derijk et al., 2002; Huizenga et al., 1998; Manenschijn et al., 2009; van Rossum and Lamberts, 2004; Wust et al., 2004).”
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“Other work has shown no significant differences between cortisol reactivity in individuals with ADHD versus healthy controls (Hirvikoski et al. 2009; Lackschewitz et al. 2008).”
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“Increased subjective stress in adults with ADHD has been observed previously in laboratory settings (Lackschewitz et al., 2008) and in everyday life (Hirvikoski et al., 2009).”
BackgroundSelf-citationInteroceptive awareness in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
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Stress Regulation of Sustained Attention and the Cholinergic Attention System
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“Studies have shown that adults with ADHD have elevated physiological stress responses and higher levels of self-reported subjective stress compared to nondiagnosed controls [11,12].”
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The Role of Comorbid Symptoms in Perceived Stress and Sleep Problems in Adolescent ADHD
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Self-citationThe Pressure–Activation–Stress scale in relation to ADHD and cortisol
Isaksson, J., Nilsson, K. W., & Lindblad, F. (2014) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-014-0544-9 · Cited by 24
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“Fourth, demographic and clinical data were obtained from medical records and a self-report questionnaire covering different clinical aspects (Hirvikoski et al., 2009).”
The role of neuroactive steroids in tic disorders
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“However, DEX-treated children were scored by their parents to be more sociable and they scored themselves as having more social anxiety (Hirvikoski et al., 2007, 2009).”
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“…focused on procrastination as a behavioral impairment, is inconsistent with an earlier finding suggesting that ADHD exacerbates the association between cognitive burden and stress responses (Hirvikoski et al., 2009) and job functioning and conduct problems in young ADHD (Babinski et al., 2017).”
ResultRamos‐Quiroga, J. A., Corominas, M., Gloria Palomar, A., Ferrer, R., Valero, S., Montse Corrales, F., Vanesa Richarte, B., & Casas, M. (2016) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2016.03.014 · Cited by 19
Predicting the affective tone of everyday dreams: A prospective study of state and trait variables
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“Demographic data were collected through the questionnaire “Current Life Situation” (Hirvikoski et al., 2009).”
MethodSelf-citationBergman, T. H., Sandred, A., Lindström, T., Lappalainen, P., Ghaderi, A., & Hirvikoski, T. (2024) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2024.100757 · Cited by 17
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Dependent Stress Mediates the Relation Between ADHD Symptoms and Depression
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Messina, V., Hirvikoski, T., Karlsson, L., Vissani, S., Wallensteen, L., Ortolano, R., Balsamo, A., Nordenström, A., & Lajić, S. (2020) · Endocrine · doi:10.1007/s12020-020-02244-1 · Cited by 13
Self-citationExecutive Functioning and Health
Williams, P., Tinajero, R., & Suchy, Y. (2017) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935291.013.75 · Cited by 14
Norris, C. M., Ljubsa, A., & Hegadoren, K. (2009) · Gender Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.genm.2009.09.001 · Cited by 14
Hidalgo, N., Sjöwall, D., Agius, H., Byström, C., Brar, A., Borg, J., & Hirvikoski, T. (2022) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-022-04134-4 · Cited by 9
Self-citationThe aetiological association between the dynamics of cortisol productivity and ADHD
Pinto, R., Rijsdijk, F. V., Ouellet‐Morin, I., Asherson, P. J., McLoughlin, G., & Kuntsi, J. (2016) · Journal of Neural Transmission · doi:10.1007/s00702-016-1534-5 · Cited by 10
“On average, cortisol levels peak 20 min after stressor onset (Hirvikoski et al. 2009) and, therefore, to index participants’ cortisol response to”
BackgroundTelomere Length and ADHD Symptoms in Young Adults
Momany, A. M., Lussier, S. J., Nikolas, M. A., & Stevens, H. E. (2019) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054719865776 · Cited by 11
Clock Genes Profiles as Diagnostic Tool in (Childhood) ADHD—A Pilot Study
Dück, A., Reis, O., Wagner, H., Wunsch, K., Häßler, F., Kölch, M. G., Astiz, M., Thome, J., Berger, C., & Oster, H. (2022) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci12091198 · Cited by 12
“Hirvikoski et al. (2009) did not find any differences in diurnal rhythm or level of salivary cortisol in their adult cohort (n = 28 ADHD, n = 28 healthy controls) [48].”
BackgroundMishra, A. A., & Marceau, K. (2019) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2019.1619166 · Cited by 9
Bassiony, M. M., Salah El‐Deen, G. M., Ameen, N., & Mahdy, R. S. (2022) · The American Journal on Addictions · doi:10.1111/ajad.13231 · Cited by 8
Szép, A., Skoluda, N., Schloß, S., Becker, K., Pauli‐Pott, U., & Nater, U. M. (2021) · Journal of Neural Transmission · doi:10.1007/s00702-021-02377-1 · Cited by 10
Accident patterns in trauma surgery patients with and without self-reported ADHD
Wolff, S., Queiser, K., Wessendorf, L., Meier, A. M., Verdenhalven, M., Grimm, O., Reimertz, C., Nau, C., Klos, M., Reif, A., et al. (2019) · Journal of Neural Transmission · doi:10.1007/s00702-019-02011-1 · Cited by 8
Lindström, T., Bergman, T. H., Annerstedt, M., Forster, M., Bölte, S., & Hirvikoski, T. (2024) · Scandinavian Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychology · doi:10.2478/sjcapp-2024-0002 · Cited by 11
“However, adult ADHD symptomatology has been linked not only to more life stressors and general perceived stress (25, 26), but also to higher parental stress (10, 27-29) and a number of factors increasing the risk of parental stress (e.g., depression (30, 31), lower parenting efficacy (32, 33), and…”
Self-citationJavelle, F., Bloch, W., Borges, U., Burberg, T., Collins, B., Gunasekara, N., Hosang, T. J., Jacobsen, T., Laborde, S., Löw, A., et al. (2024) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-024-05471-w · Cited by 8
“…Maniaci et al. 2018; Peters et al. 2019) and people suffering from impulsivity-related disorders such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (Hirvikoski et al. 2009), pathological gambling (Maniaci et al. 2018), or bipolar disorder (Casement et al. 2018) have been shown to exert more…”
Backgroundvan Andel, E., Vogel, S. W. N., Bijlenga, D., Kalsbeek, A., Beekman, A. T. F., & Kooij, J. J. S. (2024) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/10870547241285160 · Cited by 8
“In adults, no differences were found between ADHD and controls in morning cortisol levels (Bonvicini et al., 2016; Hirvikoski et al., 2009; Lackschewitz et al., 2008; Raz & Leykin, 2015; Vogel et al., 2017) or CAR (Ramos-Quiroga et al., 2016).”
Stickley, A., Shirama, A., Inagawa, T., Ruchkin, V. V., Koposov, R. A., Isaksson, J., Inoue, Y., & Sumiyoshi, T. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1008290 · Cited by 6
Zou, P., Huang, Z., Zong, X., & Zhang, Q. (2025) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106436 · Cited by 5
Sjöwall, D., Berglund, M., & Hirvikoski, T. (2023) · Applied Neuropsychology Adult · doi:10.1080/23279095.2022.2162900 · Cited by 5
“As part of the eligibility assessment, participants completed a demographic self-assessment form (Hirvikoski et al., 2009) and a D.I.V.A. interview (Kooij & Francken, 2010), and information about comorbid diagnoses were gathered from patient journals.”
Self-citationUygur, H. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1528979 · Cited by 8
Longitudinal evaluation of perceived stress and memory complaints in the Einstein Aging Study
Bell, T. R., Hill, N. L., Mogle, J. A., Sweeder, L., & Bhargava, S. (2020) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2020.1836621 · Cited by 4
Renhorn, E., Nytell, C., Backman, A., Ekstrand, C., & Hirvikoski, T. (2019) · Scandinavian Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychology · doi:10.21307/sjcapp-2019-012 · Cited by 4
“Living with ADHD has proven to be not only stressful for the affected child, adolescent (25), or adult (26, 27), but may also cause stress and worry for family members.”
BackgroundSelf-citationEvaluation of a Stress Management Training Program for Adults With ADHD—A Pilot Study
Langer, S., Greiner, A., Koydemir, S., & Schütz, A. (2013) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/0889-8391.27.2.96 · Cited by 4
“In fact, daily life is perceived as more stressful by people with ADHD as compared to individuals without this condition (Hirvikoski et al., 2009).”
BackgroundResultRuf, A., Neubauer, A. B., Koch, E. D., Ebner‐Priemer, U., Reif, A., & Matura, S. (2025) · Neuroscience Applied · doi:10.1016/j.nsa.2025.105509 · Cited by 3
“In line with previous findings (Combs et al., 2012; Hirvikoski et al., 2009; Lackschewitz et al., 2008), we found that individuals with ADHD report higher levels of perceived stress ( M = 35.39) compared to adults without ADHD ( M = 18.65) (Ruf et al., 2023).”
InfluentialErdal, K., Adami, G., Gelléri, P., & Dettmers, J. (2025) · International Journal of Educational Research Open · doi:10.1016/j.ijedro.2025.100497 · Cited by 4
Aggression in ADHD: relation to salivary cortisol
Ghamry, R. H. E., Mohamed, M. M., Azzam, H., ElHabiby, M. M., Hasan, H. M., Hashish, A. F., Elhamshary, M. M., & Barakat, D. H. (2021) · Middle East Current Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s43045-021-00104-w · Cited by 4
Rodríguez, N. G., Briceño, I., Díaz, L. E., Nicolini, H., Mendoza, A. D. G., Flóres-Lázaro, J. C., & Quiroz‐Padilla, M. F. (2023) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.3308 · Cited by 4
Adult Persons with ADHD and Their Lifestyle
Björk, A., Rönngren, Y., & Våge, L. (2023) · Autism and child psychopathology series · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-41709-2_7 · Cited by 3
Woloszyn, M., Hernandez‐Vallant, A., Palladino, N. T., Galindo, B. N., Leese, M. I., Khan, F., Kimchi, E. Z., Cerny, B. M., Phillips, M. S., & Soble, J. R. (2026) · Journal of Psychiatric Practice · doi:10.1097/pra.0000000000000909 · Cited by 2
Saito, A., Matsumoto, S., Yoshitake, N., & Sugawara, M. (2023) · The Japanese Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.5926/jjep.71.257 · Cited by 4
Metadata
- Authors
- Hirvikoski, T., Lindholm, T., Nordenström, A., Nordström, A.-L., & Lajic, S.
- Affiliations
- Karolinska University Hospital (SE)
- Stockholm University (SE)
- Karolinska Institutet (SE)
- Corresponding author
- Hirvikoski, Tatja
- Venue
- Hormones and Behavior
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2009-03
- Volume
- 55
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 418-424
- ISSN
- 0018-506X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2087984389
- Cited by
- 123
- References
- 50
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 11 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 7
- FWCI
- 3.09
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Hormones and Behavior (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Adrenal Hormones and Disorders
- Keywords
- adult ADHD, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, chronic stress, perceived stress, diurnal cortisol rhythm, salivary cortisol, cognitive stress, impulsivity, depression, anxiety, stress management
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Anxiety, Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Circadian Rhythm, Depression, Female, Humans, Hydrocortisone, Impulsive Behavior, Life Change Events, Male, Middle Aged, Neuropsychological Tests, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Self Concept, Socioeconomic Factors, Stress, Psychological, Young Adult
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