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Cited by 355Muscle activation and electromyography studiesSports Performance and TrainingMotor Control and Adaptation

Neural adaptations with chronic physical activity

Enoka, Roger M.·1997·Journal of Biomechanics
DOI 10.1016/s0021-9290(96)00170-4
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Abstract

Chronic activity patterns, such as strength training, limb immobilization, and aging, produce marked adaptations in both the muscular and nervous systems. In this brief review, some of the involved mechanisms are examined as they are revealed through studies on the maximality, specificity, and pattern of the neural drive to muscle. The studies on maximality indicate that it is difficult to activate maximally a muscle by voluntary command, the capacity varies across muscles, tasks, and training, and the maximum discharge rates of motor neurons decreases with immobilization and increases with strength training. The data on specificity demonstrate that: strength can be increased by training with imagined contractions; the velocity specificity of isokinetic training is evident with intended contractions; the strength training influences the untrained homologous muscle in the contralateral limb; the bilatral deficit can become a bilateral facilitation with appropriate training; and that eccentric contractions appear to involve a different activation scheme compared to isometric and concentric contractions. Finally, the literature on the pattern of the neural drive suggests that: coactivation varies with training and often decreases as skill level increases; measures of motor-unit synchronization reveal changes in neuronal connectivity with physical training; the reflex potentiation varies across muscles, individuals, and activity patterns; the modulation of the H-reflex amplitude with training involves changes in the motor neuron; and the motor neurons exhibit a bistable, excitability property that may be influenced by exercise. Despite the breadth of this evidence, there remain substantial gaps in our knowledge, particularly regarding the symmetry of adaptations with increased and decreased chronic physical activity.

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  • There is a delay in muscular hypertrophy as a result of exercise, and initial gains within the first few weeks of a training programme are due to neural factors.

    “It is widely accepted that there is a delay in muscular hypertrophy as a result of exercise, and initial gains within the first few weeks of any training programme will be as a result of neural factors (Enoka 1997)”

    From Physical activity and exercise for chronic pain in adults: an overview of Cochrane Reviews (2017) · cites this paper as Enoka 1997

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Authors
Enoka, R. M.
Affiliations
University of Colorado Boulder (US)
Corresponding author
Enoka, Roger M.
ORCID
Enoka, Roger M.
Venue
Journal of Biomechanics
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
1997-05
Volume
30
Issue
5
Pages
447-455
ISSN
0021-9290 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/s0021-9290(96)00170-4
OpenAlex
W2047446530
Cited by
355
References
114
Citations by year
2026: 6 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 11 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 19 · 2012: 10
FWCI
6.33
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Licence
www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations
  • Journal of Biomechanics (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders
  • National Institutes of Health (5r01ns020544-14)
  • National Institute on Aging (R01AG009000, AG-09000)
  • National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NS-20544)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Muscle activation and electromyography studies
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Sports Performance and Training
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Motor Control and Adaptation
Keywords
motor unit discharge rate, resistance training, limb immobilization, aging, motor unit synchronization, coactivation, reflex potentiation, H-reflex, motor neuron excitability, motor learning, eccentric contraction, isokinetic training, neural specificity, voluntary activation
MeSH terms
Adaptation, Physiological, Animals, Physical Exertion, Humans, Motor Neurons, Muscle Contraction, Muscles, Nervous System Physiological Phenomena, Time Factors

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