Cited by 1,459Pain Mechanisms and TreatmentsAnimal testing and alternativesVeterinary Pharmacology and Anesthesia

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Animal Models of Nociception

Le Bars, Daniel, Gozariu, Manuela, Cadden, Samuel W.·2001·Pharmacological Reviews

DOI 10.1016/s0031-6997(24)01514-x

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Background
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Background
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“Quantal measures have long been used in this assay (D’Amour and Smith, 1941; Le Bars et al., 2001), as previously published by our group (Pasternak et al., 1980a,b; Rossi et al., 1995, 1996; Neilan et al., 2001).”
Method
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Background
Metabolomics uncovers dietary omega-3 fatty acid-derived metabolites implicated in anti-nociceptive responses after experimental spinal cord injury
Figueroa, J. D., Cordero, K., Serrano‐Illán, M., Almeyda, A. R., Baldeosingh, K., Almaguel, F. G., & León, M. A. D. (2013) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.09.012 · Cited by 78
Anti‐nociceptive properties of the xanthine oxidase inhibitor allopurinol in mice: role of A1adenosine receptors
Schmidt, A., Böhmer, A. E., Antunes, C., Schallenberger, C., Porciúncula, L., Elisabetsky, E., Lara, D., & Souza, D. O. (2008) · British Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1111/j.1476-5381.2008.00025.x · Cited by 78
“…tail-flick refers predominantly to a spinal reflex with modest control by supraspinal structures, while the hot-plate test is a more complex pain model, producing two behavioural components (i.e. paw licking and jumping) considered to be supraspinally integrated responses (Le Bars et al., 2001).”
Background
Mechanisms of Analgesic and Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Annona muricata Linn. (Annonaceae) Fruit Extract in Rodents
Ishola, I. O., Awodele, O., Olusayero, A. M., & Ochieng, C. O. (2014) · Journal of Medicinal Food · doi:10.1089/jmf.2013.0088 · Cited by 78
“, paw licking and jumping) considered to be supraspinally integrated responses.(32) As shown in Table 4, two-way ANOVA revealed time course and dose-dependent significant [F (4, 29) = 28.”
Selective κ receptor partial agonist HS666 produces potent antinociception without inducing aversion after i.c.v. administration in mice
Spetea, M., Eans, S. O., Ganno, M. L., Lantero, A., Mairegger, M., Toll, L., Schmidhammer, H., & McLaughlin, J. P. (2017) · British Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1111/bph.13854 · Cited by 78
“This model of pain in mice is a well-established and commonly used model for acute thermal nociception (Le Bars et al., 2001).”
Method
The anti-hyperalgesic activity of retigabine is mediated by KCNQ potassium channel activation
Dost, R., Rostock, A., & Rundfeldt, C. (2004) · Naunyn-Schmiedeberg s Archives of Pharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00210-004-0881-1 · Cited by 78
“This test is commonly used for nociception and analgesia in rodents (Hunskaar et al. 1986; Le Bars et al. 2001 ).”
BackgroundMethod
Imidazoline I2 receptors: Target for new analgesics?
Li, J., & Zhang, Y. (2011) · European Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2011.02.038 · Cited by 77
Role of neuronal nitric oxide synthase on cardiovascular functions in physiological and pathophysiological states
Ally, A., Powell, I., Ally, M. M., Chaitoff, K. A., & Nauli, S. M. (2020) · Nitric Oxide · doi:10.1016/j.niox.2020.06.004 · Cited by 84
“integrated in order to evoke the above-mentioned reflexes and responses [247-251].”
Background
Studies of the organization of the human nociceptive withdrawal reflex*†
Andersen, O. K. (2007) · Acta Physiologica · doi:10.1111/j.1748-1716.2007.01706.x · Cited by 77
“In animals, reflexes are a key model for the assessment of nociceptive processing when screening new analgesics (Le Bars et al. 2001).”
Background
The analgesic effect of pregabalin in patients with chronic pain is reflected by changes in pharmaco‐EEG spectral indices
Graversen, C., Olesen, S. S., Olesen, A. E., Steimle, K., Farina, D., Wilder‐Smith, O. H. G., Bouwense, S. A. W., van Goor, H., & Drewes, A. M. (2011) · British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2125.2011.04104.x · Cited by 77
Antinociceptive effect from Ipomoea cairica extract
Ferreira, A. A., Amaral, F. A., Duarte, I. D. G., Oliveira, P. M., Alves, R. B., Silveira, D., Azevedo, A. O., Raslan, D. S., & de Castro, M. E. S. (2005) · Journal of Ethnopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.jep.2005.10.012 · Cited by 77
α-Terpineol reduces nociceptive behavior in mice
Quintans‐Júnior, L. J., de Oliveira, M. G. B., de Santana, M. F., de Santana, M. T., Guimarães, A. G., Quintans, J. D. S. S., de Sousa, D. P., & de Almeida, R. N. (2011) · Pharmaceutical Biology · doi:10.3109/13880209.2010.529616 · Cited by 77
“The analgesic action presented by TPN involves supraspinal as well as spinal components, as demonstrated by the utilization of the hot plate test (Le Bars et al., 2001).”
Background
Antinociceptive properties of the ethanolic extract and of the triterpene 3β,6β,16β-trihidroxilup-20(29)-ene obtained from the flowers of Combretum leprosum in mice
Pietrovski, E. F., Rosa, K. A., Facundo, V. A., Rios, K., Marques, M. C. A., & Santos, A. R. S. (2006) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2005.12.010 · Cited by 77
The anti-hyperalgesic and anti-inflammatory profiles ofp-cymene: Evidence for the involvement of opioid system and cytokines
de Santana, M. F., Guimarães, A. G., Chaves, D. O., Silva, J. C., Bonjardim, L. R., Júnior, W. D. L., Ferro, J. N. D. S., Barreto, E., dos Santos, F. E., Soares, M. B. P., et al. (2015) · Pharmaceutical Biology · doi:10.3109/13880209.2014.993040 · Cited by 77
“For this, the thermal model of the tail-flick test, considered to be a spinal reflex, but that could also involve higher neural structures (Jensen & Yaksh, 1986; Le Bars et al., 2001), was used.”
Method
Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of compounds isolated from Scaphyglottis livida and Maxillaria densa
Déciga‐Campos, M., Palacios‐Espinosa, J. F., Reyes‐Ramírez, A., & Mata, R. (2007) · Journal of Ethnopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.jep.2007.07.021 · Cited by 77
Development and characterization of a hemorrhagic rat model of central post-stroke pain
Wasserman, J. K., & Koeberle, P. D. (2009) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.03.042 · Cited by 76
“In rder to determine if thalamic hemorrhage results in altered pain erception, animals were assessed using standard nociceptive ests (Yashpal et al., 1998; Le Bars et al., 2001), at 7 days ollowing hemorrhage.”
BackgroundMethod
Morphine Antinociceptive Potency on Chemical, Mechanical, and Thermal Nociceptive Tests in the Rat
Morgan, M. M., Bobeck, E. N., Stalding, B. M., & King, M. M. (2006) · Journal of Pain · doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2005.12.009 · Cited by 76
The effects of restraint stress on nociceptive responses induced by formalin injected in rat's TMJ
Gameiro, G. H., Andrade, A. D. S., de Castro, M., Pereira, L. F., Tambeli, C. H., & Veiga, M. C. F. D. A. (2005) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2005.09.003 · Cited by 75
“Our understandings of the influence of stress on nociception are largely based on experimental models of nociception in animals (Le Bars et al., 2001).”
Geopropolis from Melipona scutellaris decreases the mechanical inflammatory hypernociception by inhibiting the production of IL-1β and TNF-α
Franchin, M., da Cunha, M. G., Denny, C., Napimoga, M. H., Cunha, T. M., Koo, H., de Alencar, S. M., Ikegaki, M., & Rosalen, P. L. (2012) · Journal of Ethnopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.jep.2012.07.040 · Cited by 75
Pressure application measurement (PAM): A novel behavioural technique for measuring hypersensitivity in a rat model of joint pain
Barton, N. J., Strickland, I. T., Bond, S. M., Brash, H. M., Bate, S. T., Wilson, A. W., Chessell, I. P., Reeve, A. J., & McQueen, D. S. (2007) · Journal of Neuroscience Methods · doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2007.02.012 · Cited by 75
Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory properties of 7-hydroxycoumarin in experimental animal models: potential therapeutic for the control of inflammatory chronic pain
Barros, T. A. D. A., Freitas, L., Barbosa‐Filho, J. M., Nunes, X. P., Giulietti, A. M., de Souza, G. E. P., dos Santos, R. R., Soares, M. B. P., & Villarreal, C. F. (2010) · Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology · doi:10.1211/jpp.62.02.0008 · Cited by 75
“The thermal model of the tail-flick test is considered to be a spinal reflex, but could also involve higher neural structures and this method therefore mainly identifies central analgesics.([33,34]) The fact that 7-HC produced antinociception in all models tested except the tail-flick test suggests that it does not bl…”
Background
A Novel Behavioral Fish Model of Nociception for Testing Analgesics
Correia, A. D., Cunha, S. R., Scholze, M., & Stevens, D. (2011) · Pharmaceuticals · doi:10.3390/ph4040665 · Cited by 75
“[24].”
Antinociceptive activity of Amaranthus spinosus in experimental animals
Hussain, Z., Amresh, G., Rao, C. V., & Singh, S. (2009) · Journal of Ethnopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.jep.2009.01.031 · Cited by 74
“Bedside-to-Bench” Behavioral Outcomes in Animal Models of Pain: Beyond the Evaluation of Reflexes
Cobos, E. J., & Portillo-Salido, E. F. (2013) · Current Neuropharmacology · doi:10.2174/1570159x113119990041 · Cited by 78
“The outcome measures vary from the number or frequency of brisk foot withdrawals to the time spent reacting by licking or shaking the stimulated paw (reviewed in [13,29]).”
Influential
Sulfated polysaccharides isolated from the green seaweed Caulerpa racemosa plays antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities in a way dependent on HO-1 pathway activation
Ribeiro, N. A., Abreu, T. M., Chaves, H. V., Bezerra, M. M., Monteiro, H. S. A., Jorge, R. J. B., & Benevídes, N. M. B. (2014) · Inflammation Research · doi:10.1007/s00011-014-0728-2 · Cited by 75
RETRACTED: Syzygium aqueum: A Polyphenol- Rich Leaf Extract Exhibits Antioxidant, Hepatoprotective, Pain-Killing and Anti-inflammatory Activities in Animal Models
Sobeh, M., Mahmoud, M. F., Petruk, G., Rezq, S., Ashour, M. L., Youssef, F. S., El-Shazly, A. M., Monti, D. M., Abdel‐Naim, A. B., & Wink, M. (2018) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2018.00566 · Cited by 74
Retracted
Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist treatment does not reduce abuse-related effects of opioid drugs
Bornebusch, A. B., Fink-Jensen, A., Wörtwein, G., Seeley, R. J., & Thomsen, M. (2019) · eneuro · doi:10.1523/eneuro.0443-18.2019 · Cited by 72
Pharmacological characterisation of place escape/avoidance behaviour in the rat chronic constriction injury model of neuropathic pain
Pedersen, L. H., & Blackburn-Munro, G. (2006) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-005-0281-3 · Cited by 74
“A recognised complication in delineating drug-mediated anti-nociception is that classical tests performed on animals require the experimenter to initiate a nociceptive reflex in response to stimuli that can consist of touch, heat or cold ( Le Bars et al. 2001 ).”
BackgroundInfluential
Postnatal Temporal, Spatial and Modality Tuning of Nociceptive Cutaneous Flexion Reflexes in Human Infants
Cornelissen, L., Lorenzo Fabrizi, D., Patten, D., Worley, A., Meek, J. H., Boyd, S. G., Slater, R., & Fitzgerald, M. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0076470 · Cited by 73
“The mature reflex has a high stimulus threshold, normally in the noxious range, and as a result is used extensively in pain research in rodents [4,5] and in adult man [6,7].”
Background
Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities ofBunium persicumessential oil, hydroalcoholic and polyphenolic extracts in animal models
Hajhashemi, V., Sajjadi, S. E., & Zomorodkia, M. (2010) · Pharmaceutical Biology · doi:10.3109/13880209.2010.504966 · Cited by 72
“Although the pain in the abdominal writhes induced by acetic acid is not a specific model, the involuntary muscle twitches of the abdomen may be of interest because of their similarity with some of those known in visceral disorders (Le Bars et al., 2001; Vogel & Vogel, 1997).”
Background
Effect of resiniferatoxin on the noxious heat threshold temperature in the rat: a novel heat allodynia model sensitive to analgesics
Almási, R., Pethö, G., Bölcskei, K., & Szolcsányi, J. (2003) · British Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0705234 · Cited by 72
“…& 2003 Nature Publishing Group All rights reserved 0007–1188/03 $25.00 www.nature.com/bjp the effect of capsaicin or other VR1 receptor agonists has not been examined and this test has not become a standard method for investigation of the thermoanalgesic effect of drugs (Le Bars et al., 2001).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activities of extract, fractions and populnoic acid from bark wood of Austroplenckia populnea
de Andrade, S. F., Cardoso, L., Carvalho, J. C. T., & Bastos, J. K. (2006) · Journal of Ethnopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.jep.2006.08.023 · Cited by 72
Effect of curcumin in mice model of vincristine-induced neuropathy
Babu, A., Prasanth, K. G., & Balaji, B. (2014) · Pharmaceutical Biology · doi:10.3109/13880209.2014.943247 · Cited by 70
“Substances that act primarily as central analgesics inhibit both phases while peripherally acting drugs inhibit only the delayed phase (Le Bars et al., 2001).”
Background
Viral Spread to Enteric Neurons Links Genital HSV-1 Infection to Toxic Megacolon and Lethality
Khoury-Hanold, W., Yordy, B., Kong, P. L., Kong, Y., Ge, W. H., Szigeti‐Buck, K., Ralevski, A., Horváth, T. L., & Iwasaki, A. (2016) · Cell Host & Microbe · doi:10.1016/j.chom.2016.05.008 · Cited by 70
“Mice were then allowed to rest for two weeks before denervation was confirmed by the tail-flick assay (Le Bars et al., 2001).”
Method
Mechanisms of Transmission and Processing of Pain: A Narrative Review
Maio, G. D., Villano, I., Ilardi, C. R., Messina, A., Monda, V., Iodice, A. C., Porro, C., Panaro, M. A., Chieffi, S., Messina, G., et al. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20043064 · Cited by 83
“An interesting example is that of corneal nociceptors, which are activated by weaker stimuli than skin nociceptors are [5].”
Background
The modality‐specific contribution of peptidergic and non‐peptidergic nociceptors is manifest at the level of dorsal horn nociresponsive neurons
Zhang, J., Cavanaugh, D. J., Nemenov, M. I., & Basbaum, A. I. (2012) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2012.242115 · Cited by 69
“Conceivably, the enhanced sensitivity using the laser also reflects the more rapid and uniform penetration though the skin provided by the 980 nm diode laser-generated heat (Le Bars et al. 2001), which allows for more efficient access to nociceptor terminals in deeper locations.”
Background
mTOR Kinase: A Possible Pharmacological Target in the Management of Chronic Pain
Lisi, L., Aceto, P., Navarra, P., & Russo, C. D. (2015) · BioMed Research International · doi:10.1155/2015/394257 · Cited by 71
“However, these studies reported variable effects on thermal sensitivity, with inhibitory effects observed after intraplantar injections of carrageenan [54, 63], and minor albeit significant reductions of thermal hyperalgesia induced by intraplantar injection of CFA [55].”
Background
Antinociceptive activity of methanol extract of fruits of Capparis ovata in mice
Arslan, R., Bektaş, N., & Öztürk, Y. (2010) · Journal of Ethnopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.jep.2010.05.060 · Cited by 69
Learned Avoidance From Noxious Mechanical Simulation But Not Threshold Semmes Weinstein Filament Stimulation After Nerve Injury in Rats
Wu, H.-E., Gemes, G., Zoga, V., Kawano, T., & Hogan, Q. H. (2009) · Journal of Pain · doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2009.07.011 · Cited by 69
Valproic Acid and Progestin Inhibit Lesion Growth and Reduce Hyperalgesia in Experimentally Induced Endometriosis in Rats
Liu, M.-H., Liu, X., Zhang, Y., & Guo, S. (2012) · Reproductive Sciences · doi:10.1177/1933719111424453 · Cited by 68
Morphine-induced analgesic tolerance, locomotor sensitization and physical dependence do not require modification of mu opioid receptor, cdk5 and adenylate cyclase activity
Contet, C., Filliol, D., Matifas, A., & Kieffer, B. L. (2007) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2007.10.015 · Cited by 68
Synthesis and neuropharmacological activity of some quinoxalinone derivatives
Olayiwola, G., Obafemi, C. A., & Taiwo, F. O. (2007) · HAL · Cited by 68
Animal models of rheumatoid pain: experimental systems and insights
Fischer, B. D., Adeyemo, A., O’Leary, M. E., & Bottaro, A. (2017) · Arthritis Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13075-017-1361-6 · Cited by 68
“drawal response and their predictive value to assess pharmacological effectiveness of opioid analgesics in humans [25].”
Background
Sparse genetic tracing reveals regionally specific functional organization of mammalian nociceptors
Olson, W. P., Abdus-Saboor, I., Cui, L., Burdge, J., Raabe, T. D., Ma, M., & Luo, W. (2017) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.29507 · Cited by 66
Assessment of a von Frey device for evaluation of the antinociceptive effects of morphine and its application in pharmacodynamic modeling of morphine in dogs
KuKanich, B. K., Lascelles, B. D. X., & Papich, M. G. (2005) · American Journal of Veterinary Research · doi:10.2460/ajvr.2005.66.1616 · Cited by 67
Antinociceptive and Anti-Inflammatory Activity from Algae of the Genus Caulerpa
da Matta, C. B. B., de Souza, É. T., de Queiroz, A. C., de Lira, D. P., de Araújo, M. V., Silva, L. H. A. C., de Miranda, G. E. C., de Araújo‐Júnior, J. X., Barbosa‐Filho, J. M., Santos, B. V. D. O., et al. (2011) · Marine Drugs · doi:10.3390/md9030307 · Cited by 67
“Algogenic agents, such as acetic acid, provoke a stereotypical behavior in mice characterized by abdominal contractions, movements of the body as a whole, twisting of dorso abdominal muscles and a reduction in motor activity and in motor coordination [41].”
Background
Rodent analgesia: Assessment and therapeutics
Flecknell, P. A. (2017) · The Veterinary Journal · doi:10.1016/j.tvjl.2017.12.017 · Cited by 70
Countermeasures for Preventing and Treating Opioid Overdose
France, C. P., Ahern, G. P., Averick, S. E., Disney, A., Enright, H. A., Esmaeli‐Azad, B., Federico, A., Gerak, L. R., Husbands, S. M., Kolber, B. J., et al. (2020) · Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1002/cpt.2098 · Cited by 66
“Although more studies are needed, this pattern of clearance indicates that NarcoBond and trapped opioids are gradually processed in the liver and excreted in urine, a metabolic fate seen with other nanosponges.(71) Preliminary safety testing in mice showed 90–100% survival after i.”
Background
Behavioral testing in rodent models of orofacial neuropathic and inflammatory pain
Krzyzanowska, A., & Avendaño, C. (2012) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.85 · Cited by 66
“…shown considerable progress; however, most of the basic science research in this field has been done in the limbs and trunk, due to possibilities of uncomplicated surgical manipulations and the ease of applying stimuli to sciaticinnervated areas for behavioral observations (Le Bars et al. 2001).”
Background
The Additive Antinociceptive Interaction Between WIN 55,212-2, a Cannabinoid Agonist, and Ketorolac
Ulugöl, A., Özyiğit, F., Yeşilyurt, Ö., & Dogrul, A. B. (2006) · Anesthesia & Analgesia · doi:10.1213/01.ane.0000194587.94260.1d · Cited by 66
“and in the acetic acid writhing test, a model of chemically induced inflammatory visceral nociception (11).”
Background
Chemical study and anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antioxidant activities of the leaves of Aristotelia chilensis (Mol.) Stuntz, Elaeocarpaceae
Muñoz, O., Christen, P., Cretton, S., Backhouse, N., Torres, V., Correa, O., Costa, E., Miranda, H. F., & Delporte, C. L. (2011) · Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology · doi:10.1111/j.2042-7158.2011.01280.x · Cited by 66
“The writhing test allows us to identify central and peripheral analgesic compounds.([36]) The tail formalin test is a recent algesiometric assay in which the only suggestive behaviour of pain consists of the licking of the tail.”
BackgroundInfluential
Overview of Neurological Mechanism of Pain Profile Used for Animal “Pain-Like” Behavioral Study with Proposed Analgesic Pathways
Yam, M. F., Loh, Y. C., Oo, C. W., & Basir, R. (2020) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms21124355 · Cited by 65
“However, both these methods are not sensitive to the analgesic effects of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents [72,73].”
Background
Sensory neuron–associated macrophages as novel modulators of neuropathic pain
Silva, C. E. A., Guimarães, R. M., & Cunha, T. M. (2021) · PAIN Reports · doi:10.1097/pr9.0000000000000873 · Cited by 67
“new light on the preclinical evaluation of potential therapeutic interventions.(119) The injury of primary afferent neurons conducts these cells to a hyperexcitability state.”
Systematic review of the behavioural assessment of pain in cats
Merola, I., & Mills, D. S. (2015) · Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery · doi:10.1177/1098612x15578725 · Cited by 65
Advantages and limitations of the Five Domains model for assessing welfare impacts associated with vertebrate pest control
Beausoleil, N. J., & Mellor, D. J. (2014) · New Zealand Veterinary Journal · doi:10.1080/00480169.2014.956832 · Cited by 65
“Likewise, pain (Domain 5) may arise due to tissue damage stimulating mechanical or chemical pain receptors (Domain 3) or extreme cold activating thermal pain receptors (Domain 2) (Le Bars et al. 2001).”
Background

Authors: Le Bars, D., Gozariu, M., & Cadden, S. W.
Venue: Pharmacological Reviews
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2001-12
Volume: 53
Issue: 4
Pages: 597-652
ISSN: 0031-6997 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/s0031-6997(24)01514-x
OpenAlex: W4406058850
Cited by: 1,459
References: 621
Citations by year: 2026: 39 · 2025: 31 · 2024: 22 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 42 · 2021: 52 · 2020: 42 · 2019: 38 · 2018: 64 · 2017: 98 · 2016: 107 · 2015: 121 · 2014: 117 · 2013: 86 · 2012: 87
FWCI: 4.39
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
Locations: Pharmacological Reviews (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Discovery Research Portal (University of Dundee) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology (medical) › Pain Mechanisms and Treatments
Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Animal testing and alternatives
Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Veterinary Pharmacology and Anesthesia
Keywords: animal models of pain, nociception, animal pain assessment, nociceptive stimuli, thermal pain, mechanical pain, chemical pain, electrical pain, nociceptive threshold, spinal reflexes, inflammation, homeostatic mechanisms
MeSH terms: Analgesics, Animals, Disease Models, Animal, Humans, Nerve Fibers, Pain, Pain Measurement

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