Cited by 1,459Pain Mechanisms and TreatmentsAnimal testing and alternativesVeterinary Pharmacology and Anesthesia

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Animal Models of Nociception

Le Bars, Daniel, Gozariu, Manuela, Cadden, Samuel W.·2001·Pharmacological Reviews

DOI 10.1016/s0031-6997(24)01514-x

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Background
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Result
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Background
Pain alleviation during castration of piglets: a comparative study of different farm options1
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“This test can involve both spinal and supra spinal structures, depending on the intensity of the radiant heat stimulation [44], The method is one of the most common tests of nociception that is based on a phasic stimulus of high intensity pain.”
Method
Saline extract of Pilosocereus gounellei stem has antinociceptive effect in mice without showing acute toxicity and altering motor coordination
de Oliveira, A. M., Freire, M. O. D. L., da Silva, W. A. V., Ferreira, M. R. A., Paiva, P. M. G., Soares, L. A. L., de Medeiros, P. L., Carvalho, B. D. M., & Napoleão, T. H. (2018) · Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.yrtph.2018.04.004 · Cited by 43
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“Since acetic acid-induced writhing is used as a general model for peripheral and central pains (Le Bars et al., 2001), further studies including tail-fl ick test or thermal hyperalgesia would be necessary to narrow down the mechanism of action of NDI10218.”
Method
Nociceptive responses to thermal and mechanical stimulations in awake pigs
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“During the habituation periods, the pigs received 3–4 randomized thermal and mechanical stimulations to prevent stimulus conditioning (Le Bars et al., 2001).”
Method
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Zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesised from the Vernonia amygdalina shows the anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activities in the mice model
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“The numerous assays were performed to such as mechanical, electrical, thermal, and chemical stimulus [43].”
BackgroundMethod
Methanolic Extract ofClinacanthus nutansExerts Antinociceptive Activity via the Opioid/Nitric Oxide‐Mediated, but cGMP‐Independent, Pathways
Rahim, M. H. A., Zakaria, Z. A., Sani, M. H. M., Omar, M. H., Yakob, Y., Cheema, M. S., Ching, S. M., Ahmad, Z., & Kadir, A. A. (2016) · Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine · doi:10.1155/2016/1494981 · Cited by 42
“Although considered a sensitive nociception model, this test is also believed to be a nonspecific test as muscle relaxants and other drugs might give false positive results [44].”
Background
A report of a galactan from marine algaGelidium crinalewith in vivo anti‐inflammatory and antinociceptive effects
de Sousa, A. A. S., Benevídes, N. M. B., Pires, A. D. F., Fiuza, F. P., de Queiroz, M. G. R., Morais, T. M. F., Pereira, M. G., & Assreuy, A. M. S. (2011) · Fundamental and Clinical Pharmacology · doi:10.1111/j.1472-8206.2011.01001.x · Cited by 41
Antinociceptive activity of methanol extract of flowers of Impatiens balsamina
Imam, M. Z., Nahar, N., Akter, S., & Rana, M. S. (2012) · Journal of Ethnopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.jep.2012.06.004 · Cited by 41
Levo-Tetrahydropalmatine Retards the Growth of Ectopic Endometrial Implants and Alleviates Generalized Hyperalgesia in Experimentally Induced Endometriosis in Rats
Zhao, T., Liu, X., Zhen, X., & Guo, S. (2010) · Reproductive Sciences · doi:10.1177/1933719110381928 · Cited by 41
Morphine-induced antinociception in the rat: Supra-additive interactions with imidazoline I2 receptor ligands
Li, J., Zhang, Y., & Winter, J. C. (2011) · European Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2011.07.041 · Cited by 41
Metabolic brain activity suggestive of persistent pain in a rat model of neuropathic pain
Thompson, S. J., Millecamps, M., Aliaga, A., Seminowicz, D. A., Low, L. A., Bedell, B. J., Stone, L. S., Schweinhardt, P., & Bushnell, M. C. (2014) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.01.020 · Cited by 41
“Thus, neuropathic pain models typically rely on measures of mechanical and/or thermal hypersensitivity (D'Amour and Smith, 1941; Le Bars et al., 2001; Woolfe and MacDonald, 1944), which may not reflect the persistent pain reported by chronic pain patients (Backonja and Stacey, 2004; Baron et al.,…”
Polyglycerol-opioid conjugate produces analgesia devoid of side effects
González‐Rodríguez, S., Quadir, M., Gupta, S., Walker, K., Zhang, X., Spahn, V., Łabuz, D., Rodríguez‐Gaztelumendi, A., Schmelz, M., Joseph, J. F., et al. (2017) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.27081 · Cited by 41
“…validity for clinical analgesia (Stein and Machelska, 2011; Kalso et al., 2002; Stein et al., 1991; Stein, 1993; Machelska et al., 1998; Le Bars et al., 2001; Whiteside et al., 2008), we found that both conventional morphine and PG-M produced stronger analgesic effects in inflamed than in…”
Background
Mechanosensitive ion channels contribute to mechanically evoked rapid leaflet movement in Mimosa pudica
Tran, D., Petitjean, H., Chebli, Y., Geitmann, A., & Sharif‐Naeini, R. (2021) · PLANT PHYSIOLOGY · doi:10.1093/plphys/kiab333 · Cited by 41
Analgesic tolerance to morphine is regulated by PPAR γ
de Guglielmo, G., Kallupi, M., Scuppa, G., Stopponi, S., Demopulos, G. A., Gaitanaris, G., & Ciccocioppo, R. (2014) · British Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1111/bph.12851 · Cited by 41
“This test was chosen because it involves a spinally mediated reflex response and can be repeated several times on the same animal (Mogil et al., 2000; Le Bars et al., 2001).”
Background
Translation of drug effects from experimental models of neuropathic pain and analgesia to humans
Taneja, A., Iorio, V., Danhof, M., & Pasqua, O. E. D. (2012) · Drug Discovery Today · doi:10.1016/j.drudis.2012.02.010 · Cited by 40
Volunteer studies in pain research — Opportunities and challenges to replace animal experiments
Langley, C., Aziz, Q., Bountra, C., Gordon, N., Hawkins, P., Jones, A. K. P., Langley, G., Nurmikko, T. J., & Tracey, I. (2008) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.05.030 · Cited by 41
“These scientific and ethical concerns about animal-based research, including in the area of pain research (Le Bars et al., 2001), are reflected both in British and European legislation (EEC, 1986), which requires the replacement, reduction and refinement of animal experiments wherever feasible.”
Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities of the ethanolic extract of Annona vepretorum Mart. (Annonaceae) in rodents
Silva, J. C., Araújo, C. D. S., de Lima-Saraiva, S. R. G., Júnior, R. G. D. O., Diniz, T. C., Wanderley, C. W. S., Palheta, R. C., Mendes, R. L., Guimarães, A. G., Quintans‐Júnior, L. J., et al. (2015) · BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12906-015-0716-2 · Cited by 41
“The advantage of this assay over other methods of nociception is the possibility to evaluate two different types of pain over a prolonged period of time and thus allows the testing of analgesics with different mechanisms of action [30, 31].”
BackgroundMethod
Antinociceptive and Antipruritic Effects of HSK21542, a Peripherally-Restricted Kappa Opioid Receptor Agonist, in Animal Models of Pain and Itch
Wang, X., Gou, X., Yu, X., Bai, D., Tan, B., Cao, P., Qian, M., Zheng, X., Wang, H., Tang, P., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2021.773204 · Cited by 40
The application of conditioning paradigms in the measurement of pain
Li, J. (2013) · European Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2013.03.002 · Cited by 40
“For example, five of the most widely used acute pain models in the literature are tail-flick test, hot-plate test, paw pressure test, writhing test and formalin test (Le Bars et al., 2001).”
BackgroundInfluential
Electroencephalographic responses of tramadol, parecoxib and morphine to acute noxious electrical stimulation in anaesthetised dogs
Kongara, K., Chambers, J. P., & Johnson, C. B. (2009) · Research in Veterinary Science · doi:10.1016/j.rvsc.2009.05.012 · Cited by 40
Involvement of the NO/cGMP/KATP pathway in the antinociceptive effect of the new pyrazole 5-(1-(3-fluorophenyl)-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)-2H-tetrazole (LQFM-021)
Florentino, I. F., Galdino, P. M., de Oliveira, L. P., da Silva, D. P. B., Pazini, F., Vanderlinde, F. A., Lião, L. M., Menegatti, R., & Costa, É. A. (2015) · Nitric Oxide · doi:10.1016/j.niox.2015.02.146 · Cited by 40
Antinociceptive effect of a novel armed spider peptide Tx3-5 in pathological pain models in mice
Oliveira, S. M., Silva, C. R., Trevisan, G., Villarinho, J. G., Cordeiro, M. N., Richardson, M., Borges, M. H., de Castro, C. J., Gomez, M. V., & Ferreira, J. (2016) · Pflügers Archiv - European Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00424-016-1801-1 · Cited by 40
“While physiological pain has an important protective function, some forms of pain occur in pathological conditions and can be a consequence of debilitating diseases [4, 30, 33].”
7-Chloro-4-phenylsulfonyl quinoline, a new antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory molecule: Structural improvement of a quinoline derivate with pharmacological activity
Pinz, M. P., dos Reis, A. S., de Oliveira, R. L., Voss, G. T., Vogt, A. G., Sacramento, M., Roehrs, J. A., Alves, D. A. C., Luchese, C., & Wilhelm, E. A. (2017) · Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.yrtph.2017.08.014 · Cited by 40
Effects of central neuropeptide S in the mouse formalin test
Peng, Y., Zhang, J., Chang, M., Li, W., Han, R.-W., & Wang, R. (2010) · Peptides · doi:10.1016/j.peptides.2010.06.027 · Cited by 40
5-HT1A/1B, 5-HT6, and 5-HT7 serotonergic receptors recruitment in tonic-clonic seizure-induced antinociception: Role of dorsal raphe nucleus
de Freitas, R. L., Ferreira, C. M. D. R., Urbina, M., Marino, A., Carvalho, A. D., Butera, G., de Oliveira, A. M., & Coimbra, N. C. (2009) · Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2009.01.003 · Cited by 40
Role of nitric oxide/cyclic GMP/K+ channel pathways in the antinociceptive effect caused by 2,3-bis(mesitylseleno)propenol
Jessé, C. R., Savegnago, L., & Nogueira, C. W. (2007) · Life Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2007.10.010 · Cited by 40
Do Decapod Crustaceans Have Nociceptors for Extreme pH?
Puri, S., & Faulkes, Z. (2010) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0010244 · Cited by 39
“Most research on nociception has been conducted on mammals [5] and other vertebrates [6–7].”
Background
Evidence for the Involvement of Descending Pain-Inhibitory Mechanisms in the Antinociceptive Effect of Hecogenin Acetate
Gama, K. B., Quintans, J. D. S. S., Antoniolli, Â. R., Quintans‐Júnior, L. J., de Santana, W. A., Branco, A., Soares, M. B. P., & Villarreal, C. F. (2013) · Journal of Natural Products · doi:10.1021/np3007342 · Cited by 39
The Modulation of Pain by Circadian and Sleep-Dependent Processes: A Review of the Experimental Evidence
Hagenauer, M. H., Crodelle, J. A., Piltz, S. H., Toporikova, N., Ferguson, P. F. B., & Booth, V. (2017) · Association for Women in Mathematics series · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-60304-9_1 · Cited by 39
Mu opioid receptor stimulation activates c-Jun N-terminal kinase 2 by distinct arrestin-dependent and independent mechanisms
Kuhar, J. R., Bedini, A., Melief, E. J., Chiu, Y.-C., Striegel, H. N., & Chavkin, C. (2015) · Cellular Signalling · doi:10.1016/j.cellsig.2015.05.019 · Cited by 39
“Tail flick analgesia is spinally mediated [30, 31], whereas the opioidsensitive nociception controlling the hotplate response is centrally regulated in part by the periaqueductal gray and rostral ventromedial medulla [31–34].”
Background
The Local Antinociceptive Actions of Nonsteroidal Antiinflammatory Drugs in the Mouse Radiant Heat Tail-Flick Test
Dogrul, A. B., Gülmez, S. E., Deveci, M. S., Gül, H., Ossipov, M. H., Porreca, F., & Tulunay, F. C. (2007) · Anesthesia & Analgesia · doi:10.1213/01.ane.0000258773.46897.34 · Cited by 39
“The tail-flick response is modulated by descending influence from suprapinal sites (1).”
Background
Antinociceptive Activity ofTrichilia catiguaHydroalcoholic Extract: New Evidence on Its Dopaminergic Effects
Viana, A. F., Maciel, I. D. S., Motta, E. M., Leal, P. C., Pianowski, L. F., Campos, M. M., & Calixto, J. Β. (2009) · Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine · doi:10.1093/ecam/nep144 · Cited by 39
“The last test is usually related to visceral pain, but since the parietal peritoneum receives somatic innervations, substances with central action are also effective in this model [16].”
Background
Antinociceptive effect of ethanolic extract of Selaginella convoluta in mice
de Sá, P. G. S., Nunes, X. P., de Lima, J. T., Filho, J., Fontana, A. P., Quintans, J. D. S. S., Quintans‐Júnior, L. J., Damasceno, P. K. F., Branco, C. R. C., Branco, A., et al. (2012) · BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine · doi:10.1186/1472-6882-12-187 · Cited by 39
“However, the writhing test is a non-specific method for evaluation of pain [37].”
BackgroundMethod
An association study of SERPING1 gene and age-related macular degeneration in a Han Chinese population.
Lü, F., Zhao, P., Fan, Y., Tang, S., Hu, J., Liu, X., Yang, X. Q., Chen, Y., Li, T., Lei, C., et al. (2010) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · doi:10.3390/molecules16010001 · Cited by 53
“Chemical-induced visceral pain and paw nociception are very useful models for the study of nociception and the assessment of analgesic drugs [8].”
Background
The role of multidrug resistance-associated protein in the blood-brain barrier and opioid analgesia
Su, W. T., & Pasternak, G. W. (2013) · Synapse · doi:10.1002/syn.21667 · Cited by 38
“Rat studies were assessed using graded responses while mice studies assessed analgesia quantally as an increase equal to or greater than twice the baseline value for that animal (Le Bars et al., 2001).”
Method
Involvement of Cholinergic and Opioid System inγ-Terpinene-Mediated Antinociception
Passos, F. F. B., Lopes, E. M., de Araújo, J. M., de Sousa, D. P., Véras, L. M. C., Leite, J. R. S. A., & Almeida, F. R. D. C. (2015) · Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine · doi:10.1155/2015/829414 · Cited by 38
Effect of conditioned pain modulation on trigeminal somatosensory function evaluated by quantitative sensory testing
Oono, Y., Baad‐Hansen, L., Wang, K., Arendt‐Nielsen, L., & Svensson, P. J. (2013) · Pain · doi:10.1016/j.pain.2013.07.049 · Cited by 38
“Since ancient times, the observation that pain in 1 part of the body can mask pain in another part, ie, a conditioning stimulus (CS) affects the perception induced by a test stimulus (TS), has been described in humans [18,39].”
Background
Nicotine Increases Codeine Analgesia Through the Induction of Brain CYP2D and Central Activation of Codeine to Morphine
McMillan, D. M., & Tyndale, R. F. (2015) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/npp.2015.32 · Cited by 38
A small, silent, low friction, linear actuator for mechanical nociceptive testing in veterinary research
Dixon, M., Taylor, P. M., Slingsby, L. S., Hoffmann, M. V., Kästner, S., & Murrell, J. C. (2010) · Laboratory Animals · doi:10.1258/la.2010.009080 · Cited by 38
Analgesic , anti-inflammatory and antipyretic activity of Cissus quadrangularis
Vijay, P., & Vijayvergia, R. (2010) · Cited by 38
Identification and characterization of plant-derived alkaloids, corydine and corydaline, as novel mu opioid receptor agonists
Kaserer, T., Steinacher, T., Kainhofer, R., Erli, F., Sturm, S., Waltenberger, B., Schuster, D., & Spetea, M. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-70493-1 · Cited by 49
Therapeutic and prophylactic effects of macrophage-derived small extracellular vesicles in the attenuation of inflammatory pain
Jean-Toussaint, R., Lin, Z., Tian, Y., Gupta, R., Pande, R., Luo, X., Hu, H., Sacan, A., & Ajit, S. K. (2021) · Brain, Behavior, and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2021.02.005 · Cited by 36
Sickle cell disease in mice is associated with sensitization of sensory nerve fibers
Kenyon, N. J., Wang, L., Spornick, N., Khaibullina, A., Almeida, L. E. F., Cheng, Y. I., Wang, J., Guptill, V., Finkel, J. C., & Quezado, Z. (2014) · Experimental Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1177/1535370214544275 · Cited by 38
“Once one of these behaviors was noted, mice were removed from the hot plate and time in seconds was recorded as heat response latency.(33)”
Method
Peripheral antinociception and anti-edematogenic effect of a sulfated polysaccharide from Acanthophora muscoides
Quinderé, A. L. G., Fontes, B. R., Vanderlei, E. D. S. O., de Queiroz, I. N. L., Rodrigues, J. A. G., de Araújo, I. W. F., Jorge, R. J. B., de Menezes, D. B., Silva, A. A. R. E., Chaves, H. V., et al. (2013) · Pharmacological Reports · doi:10.1016/s1734-1140(13)71037-5 · Cited by 38
“This test is a typical model of inflammatory pain that is widely used to screen for new agents with peripheral analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties [21, 44].”
Background
Antinociceptive effect and acute toxicity of the Hyptis suaveolens leaves aqueous extract on mice
dos Santos, T. C., Marques, M. S., de Menezes, I. A. C., Dias, K. S., Silva, A. B. L., Mello, I. C. M., Carvalho, A. C. S., Cavalcanti, S. C. H., Antoniolli, Â. R., & Marçal, R. M. (2007) · Fitoterapia · doi:10.1016/j.fitote.2007.01.006 · Cited by 38
Differential anti-neuropathic pain effects of tetrodotoxin in sciatic nerve- versus infraorbital nerve-ligated rats – Behavioral, pharmacological and immunohistochemical investigations
Kayser, V., Viguier, F., Ioannidi, M., Bernard, J., Latrémolière, A., Michot, B., Vela, J. M., Buschmann, H., Hamon, M., & Bourgoin, S. (2009) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2009.09.003 · Cited by 38
“As PW is a spinally coordinated reflex whereas vocalization is a supraspinal integrated response, this test allowed assessment of the respective contribution of spinal versus supraspinal mechanisms (Le Bars et al., 2001).”
Effects of opioids in the formalin test in the Speke’s hinged tortoise (Kinixy’s spekii)
Wambugu, S. N., Towett, P. K., Kiama, S. G., Abelson, K., & Kanui, T. I. (2010) · Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2885.2009.01148.x · Cited by 38
Discharge of Raphe Magnus on and offCells Is Predictive of the Motor Facilitation Evoked by Repeated Laser Stimulation
Foo, H., & Mason, P. (2003) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.23-05-01933.2003 · Cited by 38
“Precise latency determination can be made using laser stimulation because the skin is heated in a short time ( 150 msec), thereby producing nearly synchronous activation of peripheral afferents (Mor and Carmon, 1975; Le Bars et al., 2001).”
Background
Antinociceptive effects of epidural magnesium sulphate alone and in combination with morphine in dogs
Bahrenberg, A., Dzikiti, B. T., Fosgate, G. T., Stegmann, F. G., Tacke, S., & Rioja, E. (2014) · Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia · doi:10.1111/vaa.12211 · Cited by 37
Behavioural changes following intraperitoneal vaccination in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)
Bjørge, M. H., Nordgreen, J., Janczak, A. M., Poppe, T. T., Ranheim, B., & Horsberg, T. E. (2011) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2011.04.018 · Cited by 37
Antinociceptive Properties of Physalins fromPhysalis angulata
Lima, M. D. S., Evangelista, A. F., dos Santos, G. G. L., Ribeiro, I. M., Tomassini, T. C. B., Soares, M. B. P., & Villarreal, C. F. (2014) · Journal of Natural Products · doi:10.1021/np5003093 · Cited by 37
Serotonergic neurotransmission in the dorsal raphe nucleus recruits in situ 5-HT2A/2C receptors to modulate the post-ictal antinociception
de Freitas, R. L., Bassi, G. S., de Oliveira, A. M., & Coimbra, N. C. (2008) · Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2008.07.003 · Cited by 37
Assessment of thermal sensitivity in rats using the thermal place preference test
Balayssac, D., Ling, B., Ferrier, J., Pereira, B., Eschalier, A., & Authier, N. (2014) · Behavioural Pharmacology · doi:10.1097/fbp.0000000000000026 · Cited by 37
Antinociceptive activity of Quillaja saponaria Mol. saponin extract, quillaic acid and derivatives in mice
Arrau, S., Delporte, C. L., Cartagena, C., Rodríguez-Díaz, M., González‐García, P., Silva, X., Cassels, B. K., & Miranda, H. F. (2010) · Journal of Ethnopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.jep.2010.09.016 · Cited by 37
Antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory and gastroprotective effects of a hydroalcoholic extract from the leaves of Eugenia punicifolia (Kunth) DC. in rodents
Basting, R. T., Nishijima, C. M., Lopes, J. A., Santos, R. C., Périco, L. L., Laufer, S., Bauer, S. M., Costa, M. F., dos Santos, L. C., da Rocha, L. R. M., et al. (2014) · Journal of Ethnopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.jep.2014.09.041 · Cited by 37
Antinociceptive action of ethanolic extract obtained from roots of Humirianthera ampla Miers
Luiz, A. P., Moura, J. D., Meotti, F. C., Guginski, G., Guimarães, C. L. S., Azevedo, M. S. D., Rodrigues, A. L. S., & Santos, A. R. S. (2007) · Journal of Ethnopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.jep.2007.08.016 · Cited by 37

Authors: Le Bars, D., Gozariu, M., & Cadden, S. W.
Venue: Pharmacological Reviews
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2001-12
Volume: 53
Issue: 4
Pages: 597-652
ISSN: 0031-6997 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/s0031-6997(24)01514-x
OpenAlex: W4406058850
Cited by: 1,459
References: 621
Citations by year: 2026: 39 · 2025: 31 · 2024: 22 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 42 · 2021: 52 · 2020: 42 · 2019: 38 · 2018: 64 · 2017: 98 · 2016: 107 · 2015: 121 · 2014: 117 · 2013: 86 · 2012: 87
FWCI: 4.39
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
Locations: Pharmacological Reviews (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Discovery Research Portal (University of Dundee) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology (medical) › Pain Mechanisms and Treatments
Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Animal testing and alternatives
Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Veterinary Pharmacology and Anesthesia
Keywords: animal models of pain, nociception, animal pain assessment, nociceptive stimuli, thermal pain, mechanical pain, chemical pain, electrical pain, nociceptive threshold, spinal reflexes, inflammation, homeostatic mechanisms
MeSH terms: Analgesics, Animals, Disease Models, Animal, Humans, Nerve Fibers, Pain, Pain Measurement

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