Liquid hydrogen: Potential, problems, and a proposed research program
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Addition of a vapor-cooled shield (VCS) further reduces boil-off losses compared to MLI alone.
“Despite the effectiveness of multi-layer insulation systems, previous reports suggest that the addition of a vapor-cooled shield (VCS) will further reduce boil-off losses [34,44].”
From Strategies to recover and minimize boil-off losses during liquid hydrogen storage (2023) · cites this paper as [44]
Magnetic refrigerators are considered suitable for this task because of their high efficiency, reliability, and relatively low cost.
“Magnetic refrigerators are considered suitable for this task because of their high efficiency, reliability, and relatively low cost [34,44].”
From Strategies to recover and minimize boil-off losses during liquid hydrogen storage (2023) · cites this paper as [44]
BOH must be vented to maintain tank pressure; otherwise, the warmer stratified column of LH2 can potentially cause cavitation and damage the LH2 pump.
“Therefore, the BOH must be vented to maintain the pressure of the tank, otherwise, the warmer stratified column of LH2 can potentially cause cavitation and damage the LH2 pump [44,64].”
From Strategies to recover and minimize boil-off losses during liquid hydrogen storage (2023) · cites this paper as [44]
Warmer LH2 rises to the surface, causing the temperature of the upper layers to be higher than that of the bulk liquid.
“Therefore, the warmer LH2 rises to the surface, causing the temperature of the upper layers to be higher than that of the bulk liquid [44].”
From Strategies to recover and minimize boil-off losses during liquid hydrogen storage (2023) · cites this paper as [44]
LH2 transport at lower pressures (near atmospheric) mitigates boil-off formation due to flashing, though at the expense of storing a smaller volume of LH2.
“LH2 transport at lower pressures (near atmospheric) is a way to mitigate boil-off formation due to flashing, though at the expense of storing a smaller volume of LH2 [44,65].”
From Strategies to recover and minimize boil-off losses during liquid hydrogen storage (2023) · cites this paper as [44]
Transport of LH2 from high-pressure (0.24-0.27 MPa) to low-pressure Dewars (0.12 MPa) can generate BOH.
“Additionally, transport of LH2 from high-pressure (between 0.24 and 0.27 MPa) to low-pressure Dewars (0.12 MPa) is another issue that can generate BOH [44].”
From Strategies to recover and minimize boil-off losses during liquid hydrogen storage (2023) · cites this paper as [44]
The substantial reduction in heat loss by VCS is determined by heat exchange between low-temperature BOH and incoming ambient heat, allowing efficient use of BOH sensible heat prior to reliquefaction or venting.
“This substantial reduction in heat loss is determined by the heat exchange between the low-temperature BOH and the incoming ambient heat ( qroom in Figure 4c), allowing for efficient use of the low-temperature sensible heat of the BOH prior to its reliquefaction or venting, as shown in Figure 4c [34,44,63].”
From Strategies to recover and minimize boil-off losses during liquid hydrogen storage (2023) · cites this paper as [44]
The flashing phenomenon is quick vaporization occurring over transfer of LH2 from a tank to another with a pressure difference.
“The reason is the quick vaporization, known as the flashing phenomenon, occurring over the transfer of LH2 from a tank to another with a difference of pressure.”
From Strategies to recover and minimize boil-off losses during liquid hydrogen storage (2023) · cites this paper as [44]
A possible solution to sloshing is the addition of cross baffles inside the tank to mitigate impact forces during acceleration and prevent LH2 movement.
“A possible solution to sloshing is the addition of cross baffles inside the tank to mitigate the impact forces during acceleration and prevent LH2 movement [34,44].”
From Strategies to recover and minimize boil-off losses during liquid hydrogen storage (2023) · cites this paper as [44]
LH2 tanks are generally of three types: double-jacketed tanks with liquid nitrogen on the outer jacket, super-insulated tanks with reflective powder or multi-layer insulation (MLI), and vapor-cooled shielded (VCS) tanks employing super-insulation.
“LH2 tanks are generally of three types: i) double-jacketed tanks with liquid nitrogen on the outer jacket, ii) super-insulated tanks with reflective powder or multi-layer insulation (MLI), and iii) vapor-cooled shielded (VCS) tanks employing super-insulation [34,44] as graphically described in Figure 4.”
From Strategies to recover and minimize boil-off losses during liquid hydrogen storage (2023) · cites this paper as [44]
Another way to overcome thermal stratification is to use a magnetic-type refrigerator to extract heat from the tank and maintain LH2 in subcooled or saturated conditions.
“Another way to overcome thermal stratification within the tank is to use a magnetic-type refrigerator to extract heat from the tank and maintain the LH2 in subcooled or saturated conditions.”
From Strategies to recover and minimize boil-off losses during liquid hydrogen storage (2023) · cites this paper as [44]
BOH may be generated by ortho- to para-H2 conversion, heat leaks, sloshing, and flashing.
“According to Sherif et al. [34,44], BOH may be generated for the following reasons, detailed below:”
From Strategies to recover and minimize boil-off losses during liquid hydrogen storage (2023) · cites this paper as [44]
Enabling BOG management on large scales represents a significant technical challenge that is yet to be resolved.
“However, enabling BOG management on such scales represents a significant technical challenge that is yet to be resolved [24][25][26].”
From Modelling of Liquid Hydrogen Boil-Off (2022) · cites this paper as [26]
The ortho- to para-H2 conversion is exothermic and temperature associated, causing some H2 to be wasted as boil-off gas when storing liquid H2.
“The ortho- to para-H2 conversion is exothermic and temperature associated. As a result, when storing liquid H2, some of the H2 is wasted, which is called boil-off gas.158,159”
From Strategies To Improve the Performance of Hydrogen Storage Systems by Liquefaction Methods: A Comprehensive Review (2023) · cites this paper as [159]
As long as there is no favorable demand for liquid H2 in a region, it will be difficult to invest in this sector.
“Therefore, as long as there is no favorable demand for liquid H2 in a region, it will be difficult to invest in this sector.159,364”
From Strategies To Improve the Performance of Hydrogen Storage Systems by Liquefaction Methods: A Comprehensive Review (2023) · cites this paper as [159]
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- Authors
- SHERIF, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Florida (US)
- Corresponding author
- SHERIF, S
- ORCID
- SHERIF, S
- Venue
- International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1997-07
- Volume
- 22
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 683-688
- ISSN
- 0360-3199 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2009080181
- Cited by
- 144
- References
- 19
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 1 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 3 · 2013: 5
- FWCI
- 0.00
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Aerospace Engineering › Spacecraft and Cryogenic Technologies
- Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Materials Chemistry › Hydrogen Storage and Materials
- Physical Sciences › Energy › Energy Engineering and Power Technology › Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems
- Keywords
- liquid hydrogen, hydrogen storage, hydrogen liquefaction, ortho-para conversion, thermal stratification, self-pressurization, heat leakage, sloshing, flashing, energy density, large-scale hydrogen production, metal hydrides
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