Cited by 548Genetic and Clinical Aspects of Sex Determination and Chromosomal AbnormalitiesSexual Differentiation and DisordersDown syndrome and intellectual disability research

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Morbidity in Turner Syndrome

Gravholt, Claus Højbjerg, Juul, Svend, Naeraa, Rune Weis, Hansen, Jan·1998·Journal of Clinical Epidemiology

DOI 10.1016/s0895-4356(97)00237-0

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Abstract

Turner syndrome afflicts approximately 50 per 100,000 females and is characterized by retarded growth, gonadal dysgenesis, and infertility. Much attention has been focused on growth and growth promoting therapies, while less is known about the natural course of the syndrome, especially in adulthood. We undertook this study to assess the incidence of diseases relevant in the study of Turner syndrome. The study period was from January 1, 1984 to December 31, 1993, and the study base was all women living in Denmark during the study period. We used data from the Danish Cytogenetic Central Register and the Danish National Registry of Patients to assess morbidity. This study supports several earlier studies reporting increased morbidity and confirms results of a recent study on cancer in Turner syndrome. Women with Turner syndrome seem to have an increased incidence of fractures, osteoporotic fractures in adulthood, and non-osteoporotic fractures in childhood. Furthermore, diabetes mellitus, both NIDDM and IDDM, was found with a markedly increased incidence in Turner syndrome, as well as ischemic heart disease, hypertension, and stroke. The risk of cancer, except cancer of the large bowel, does not seem to be elevated in Turner syndrome. Our data suggest that patients with Turner syndrome are extraordinarily prone to abnormalities constituting the metabolic syndrome (e.g., hypertension, dyslipidaemia, NIDDM, obesity, hyperinsulinemia and hyperuricemia). The present data may help to explain the decreased life span found in patients with Turner syndrome.

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Items 101–200 of 546

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“(6) reported an increased incidence of osteoporosis and fractures.”
Background
Fertility, pregnancy, and medical management of Turner syndrome in the reproductive years
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Background
Epidemiological, endocrine and metabolic features in Turner syndrome
Gravholt, C. H. (2005) · Arquivos Brasileiros de Endocrinologia & Metabologia · doi:10.1590/s0004-27302005000100019 · Cited by 64
“…hypothyroidism and insufﬁciently treated hypothyroidism are suggested to be associated with coronary artery disease, elevated low density lipoprotein cholesterol, and apolipoprotein B levels (277–279), which may explain part of the increased risk of cardio-vascular disease in Turner syndrome (8).”
Influential
Elevated liver enzymes in Turner syndrome during a 5‐year follow‐up study
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“The risk appears to be higher for the forearm and skeletal sites consisting predominantly of cortical bone [Ross et al., 1991; Gravholt et al., 1998; Gravholt et al., 2003; Han et al., 2006].”
Background
Bone Fragility in Turner Syndrome: Mechanisms and Prevention Strategies
Faienza, M. F., Ventura, A., Colucci, S. C., Cavallo, L., Grano, M., & Brunetti, G. (2016) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2016.00034 · Cited by 60
“According to a large epidemiological study, the risk of fractures for TS women seems to be about two times higher than general population, especially at metacarpal bones, femoral neck, lower spine, and forearm (9).”
Background
Insulin Resistance Is an Intrinsic Defect Independent of Fat Mass in Women with Turner’s Syndrome
Salgin, B., Amin, R., Yuen, K. C. J., Williams, R. M., Murgatroyd, P. R., & Dunger, D. B. (2006) · Hormone Research in Paediatrics · doi:10.1159/000090907 · Cited by 60
“Women with Turner’s syndrome (TS) have a fourfold increased relative risk of developing type 2 diabetes (T2DM) and a threefold increase in overall mortality, with diabetes mellitus contributing to 25p of the causes of death in adulthood [”
Background
How do you monitor the patient with Turner’s syndrome in adulthood?
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Self-citation
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“Renal pathologies have been reported to be of an approximate frequency of 30% in TS patients, a frequency which is nine times greater compared to the normal population (1,32,33,34).”
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Prolongation of the cardiac QTc interval in Turner syndrome
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“5-fold increase in risk of potential osteoporotic fractures,((10)) whereas a 35% increase in risk of all fractures was found in a retrospective study using questionnaires.”
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“BP decreased both during and after discontinuation of GH treatment, but remained higher than in the normal population, whereas lipid levels and the AI after discontinuation of GH treatment were more beneficial, regarding the development of CVD, than in a normal control group.”
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The effects of long-term growth hormone treatment on cardiac left ventricular dimensions and blood pressure in girls with Turner’s syndrome
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Amniotic fluid RNA gene expression profiling provides insights into the phenotype of Turner syndrome
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“Hyperlipidemia and atherosclerosis are well known to be associated with turner syndrome (ross et al. 1995; elsheikh et al. 2002; Bondy 2007; Giordano et al. 2011; Gravholt et al. 1998). the risk of hypertension is increased threefold in individuals with turner syndrome (Gravholt et al. 1998).”
Sex hormone replacement in Turner syndrome
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“Autoimmunity in TS is increased at least twofold [3, 172] with autoantibody positivity seen in 58% [173].”
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Autoimmunity Predisposition in Girls With Turner Syndrome
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“25-fold higher than in the general population (11).”
Background
Recognition and management of adults with Turner syndrome: from the transition of adolescence through the senior years
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“The overall cancer risk in Turner Syndrome does not seem to be increased in comparison to the general female population (Gravholt et al., 1998a; Schoemaker, Swerdlow, Higgins, Wright, & Jacobs, 2008a).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Estrogen therapy initiated at an early age increases bone mineral density in Turner syndrome patients
Kodama, M., Komura, H., Kodama, T., Nishio, Y., & Kimura, T. (2011) · Endocrine Journal · doi:10.1507/endocrj.ej11-0267 · Cited by 50
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New Issues in the Diagnosis and Management of Turner Syndrome
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“Women with TS often suffer from multiple risk factors for atherosclerotic vascular disease, including hypertension, diabetes and dyslipidemia, and registry data from Europe suggests there is indeed increased mortality from ischemic heart disease [55].”
Background
A longitudinal study on bone mineral density until adulthood in girls with Turner's syndrome participating in a growth hormone injection frequency‐response trial
Sas, T., Keizer-Schrama, S. M. D. M., Stijnen, T., Asarfi, A., van Leeuwen, W. J., van Teunenbroek, A., van Rijn, R. R., Drop, S. L. S., & the Dutch Advisory group on Growth Hormone (2000) · Clinical Endocrinology · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2265.2000.00963.x · Cited by 48
“Despite only limited reports of a greater number of fractures during childhood (Ross et al., 1991) or adulthood (Davies et al., 1995; Gravholt et al., 1998), osteoporosis historically has been described as a feature in TS, because of the frequent observation of radiographic osteopenia and the…”
Background
Klinefelter syndrome and medical treatment: hypogonadism and beyond
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Turner Syndrome with Y Chromosome: Spontaneous Thelarche, Menarche, and Risk of Malignancy
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Physiological and catecholamine response to sympathetic stimulation in turner syndrome
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Delay in estrogen commencement is associated with lower bone mineral density in Turner syndrome
Nguyen, H. H., Wong, P., Strauss, B. J., Jones, G., Ebeling, P. R., Milat, F., & Vincent, A. J. (2017) · Climacteric · doi:10.1080/13697137.2017.1325461 · Cited by 47
“control group, (2) the fracture prevalence, and (3) the effect”
Background
Adipokine Dysregulation in Turner Syndrome: Comparison of Circulating Interleukin-6 and Leptin Concentrations with Measures of Adiposity and C-Reactive Protein
Ostberg, J. E., Hosseinzadeh‐Attar, M. J., Mohamed‐Ali, V., & Conway, G. S. (2005) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2004-1966 · Cited by 47
Long-Term Follow-Up of GH-Treated Girls with Turner Syndrome: Metabolic Consequences
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“it has become increasingly clear that the syndrome is associated not only with short stature and hypogonadism, but also with a number of diseases and conditions. As well as having a higher incidence of congenital cardiovascular malformations, TS women are also predisposed to cardiovascular disease (CVD), as CVD risk f…”
Background
Chapter 18, The Spectrum of Pediatric Osteoporosis
Bianchi, M. L., & Glorieux, F. H. (2011) · Cited by 46
The Spectrum of Pediatric Osteoporosis
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Turner Syndrome and the Heart
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Delayed β-cell response and glucose intolerance in young women with Turner syndrome
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“They went on to divide their study group by karyotype into patients with delXq with a T2DM rate of 9% (similar to the T2DM rate in the background population), 45, X with a rate of 18%, delXp with a rate of 23%, and impressively, a rate of 43% among subjects with isochromosome Xq.”
BackgroundInfluential
Turner syndrome in childhood and adolescence
McCarthy, K., & Bondy, C. A. (2008) · Expert Review of Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1586/17446651.3.6.771 · Cited by 44
Growth Hormone Treatment in Children
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Constitutional chromosome aberrations as pathogenetic events in hematologic malignancies
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Background
Clinical Findings and Follow-Up of 46,XY and 45,X/46,XY Testicular Dysgenesis
de Andrade, J. G. R., Fabbri‐Scallet, H., Santos, A. P., Cools, M., Werner, R., Hiort, O., de Mello, M. P., Guerra‐Júnior, G., & Maciel‐Guerra, A. T. (2019) · Sexual Development · doi:10.1159/000504239 · Cited by 45
“Cardiovascular and renal/collecting system malformations and thyroid dysfunction, that are frequently observed in Turner syndrome [Gravholt et al., 1998; Carvalho et al., 2010], were also frequent features of patients with MGD.”
Background
Understanding the importance of peak bone mass
Hereford, T. E., Kellish, A. S., Samora, J. B., & Nichols, L. R. (2024) · Journal of the Pediatric Orthopaedic Society of North America · doi:10.1016/j.jposna.2024.100031 · Cited by 47
A genetic model for multimorbidity in young adults
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Turner syndrome in childhood and adolescence
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Liver biochemical abnormalities in Turner syndrome: a comprehensive characterization of an adult population
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“7) and GGT 153 (10-603) UI/L, with a median AST/ALT ratio of 0.”
Background
Psychological well-being in women with Turner syndrome: Somatic and social correlates
Boman, U. W., Bryman, I., & Möller, A. (2004) · Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics & Gynecology · doi:10.1080/01674820400017855 · Cited by 41
“In fact, Gravholt et al.3 have argued that the profile of medical problems in females with TS, including increased risk of fractures, heart disease, hypertension, vascular insults of the brain, overweight, diabetes and other endocrine diseases, is similar to that of postmenopausal women, although the problems in TS oc…”
Background
Adulthood in Women with Turner Syndrome
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Health‐care problems of Turner syndrome in the adult woman: a cross sectional study of a Victorian cohort and a case for transition
Pedreira, C. C., Hameed, R., Kanumakala, S., & Zacharin, M. (2005) · Internal Medicine Journal · doi:10.1111/j.1445-5994.2005.00990.x · Cited by 40
Long QT Interval in Turner Syndrome – A High Prevalence of LQTS Gene Mutations
Trolle, C., Mortensen, K. H., Pedersen, L. N., Berglund, A., Jensen, H. K., Andersen, N. H., & Gravholt, C. H. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0069614 · Cited by 39
“Increased morbidity and mortality are present due to congenital heart disease, ischemic heart disease, hypertension, and diabetes [8–10].”
Background
Muscle Fiber Composition and Capillary Density in Turner Syndrome
Gravholt, C. H., Nyholm, B., Saltin, B., Schmitz, O., & Christiansen, J. S. (2001) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/diacare.24.9.1668 · Cited by 39
“In an epidemiological study of the entire population of women with Turner syndrome in Denmark, we found that type 2 diabetes occurred with an increased relative risk of 4, and that the risk of type 1 diabetes was also increased (RR 5 11) (10).”
Background
Organ Abnormalities Caused by Turner Syndrome
Yoon, S. H., Kim, G. Y., Choi, G. T., & Tae, J. (2023) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells12101365 · Cited by 43
“Individuals with TS are at an increased risk of endocrine diagnoses, including diabetes, thyroid and parathyroid disorders, celiac disease, and osteoporosis [23,24], as well as cardiovascular diseases, including arrhythmia, ischemic heart disease, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and stroke.”
Background
Turner's syndrome associated with psoriasis and alopecia areata
Rosina, P., Segalla, G., Magnanini, M., Chieregato, C., & Barba, A. (2003) · Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology · doi:10.1046/j.1468-3083.2003.t01-1-00502.x · Cited by 38
The impact and management of Turner's syndrome in adult life
Conway, G. S. (2002) · Best Practice & Research Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1053/beem.2002.0197 · Cited by 38
Turner Syndrome, Insulin Sensitivity and Growth Hormone Treatment
Mazzanti, L., Bergamaschi, R., Castiglioni, L., ZAPPULLA, F., Pirazzoli, P., & Cicognani, A. (2005) · Hormone Research in Paediatrics · doi:10.1159/000089318 · Cited by 38
Growth Hormone in Turner Syndrome: Twenty Years after, What Can We Tell our Patients?
Carel, J. (2005) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2005-0846 · Cited by 38
A unique case of trichorionic quadruplet pregnancy after oocyte donation in a patient with Turner's syndrome
Makrakis, E., Papagianni, V., & Deligeoroglou, E. (2009) · Gynecological Endocrinology · doi:10.1080/09513590902898247 · Cited by 38
Turner Syndrome
Steiner, M., & Saenger, P. H. (2022) · Advances in Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.yapd.2022.03.004 · Cited by 42
Glucose metabolism in Turner syndrome
Sun, L., Wang, Y., Zhou, T., Zhao, X., Wang, Y., Wang, G., & Gang, X. (2019) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2019.00049 · Cited by 36
“3 years) who received EP therapy and age-matched healthy women; they found that therapy increased coronary heart disease, IGT, insulin resistance, and hypertriglyceridemia in patients with TS (14).”
Background
Subclinical left ventricular dysfunction in normotensive women with Turner’s syndrome
Andersen, N. H., Hjerrild, B. E., Sørensen, K., Pedersen, E. M., Stochholm, K., Gormsen, L. C., Hørlyck, A., Christiansen, J. S., & Gravholt, C. H. (2006) · Heart · doi:10.1136/hrt.2005.081471 · Cited by 36
“Women with Turner’s syndrome (TS) are at risk of not only congenital cardiovascular malformations but also hypertension and ischaemic heart disease,”
Background
Cardiometabolic health in Turner syndrome
Davis, S. M., & Geffner, M. E. (2019) · American Journal of Medical Genetics Part C Seminars in Medical Genetics · doi:10.1002/ajmg.c.31678 · Cited by 37
“Women with TS have a 2.9-fold relative risk of hypertension compared to the general population in Denmark (Gravholt et al., 1998).”
BackgroundInfluential
Prevalence of Pilomatricoma in Turner Syndrome
Handler, M. Z., Derrick, K. M., Lutz, R. E., Morrell, D. S., Davenport, M. L., & Armstrong, A. W. (2013) · JAMA Dermatology · doi:10.1001/2013.jamadermatol.115 · Cited by 36
Impaired aortic distensibility and elevated central blood pressure in Turner syndrome: a cardiovascular magnetic resonance study
Wen, J., Trolle, C., Viuff, M. H., Ringgaard, S., Laugesen, E., Gutmark, E. J., Subramaniam, D. R., Backeljauw, P., Gutmark-Little, I., Andersen, N. H., et al. (2018) · Journal of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance · doi:10.1186/s12968-018-0497-0 · Cited by 35
Insulin sensitivity in Turner's syndrome: influence of GH treatment
Radetti, G., Pasquino, B., Gottardi, E., Contadin, I. B., Aimaretti, G., & Rigon, F. (2004) · European Journal of Endocrinology · doi:10.1530/eje.0.1510351 · Cited by 36
“... improved following the introduction of growth hormone (GH) treatment, in particular when started early and if higher doses of GH are given (1 – 4). This kind of treatment approach raises, however, some concern about the potential diabetogenic effect of excessive GH concentrations (5 – 7). An impaired glucose toler…”
Background
Turner syndrome and osteoporosis
Augoulea, A., Zachou, G., & Lambrinoudaki, I. V. (2019) · Maturitas · doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2019.09.010 · Cited by 36
Quality of Medical Follow-Up of Young Women with Turner Syndrome Treated in One Clinical Center
Gawlik, A., Kaczor, B., Kamińska, H., Zachurzok, A., Gawlik, T., & Małecka‐Tendera, E. (2012) · Hormone Research in Paediatrics · doi:10.1159/000337780 · Cited by 34
Atherogenic Lipid Profile and Systolic Blood Pressure are Associated with Carotid Artery Intima-media Thickness in Children with Turner Syndrome
Pirgon, Ö., Atabek, M. E., Oran, B., & Güçlü, R. (2009) · Journal of Clinical Research in Pediatric Endocrinology · doi:10.4008/jcrpe.v1i2.9 · Cited by 34
“(23) The risk of hypertension is three-fold in TS patients when compared to the general population.(3) The mechanisms leading to hypertension in these girls are unknown and not clearly related to the cardiac or renal congenital abnormalities.”
Background
Puberty
Styne, D. M., & Grumbach, M. M. (2011) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-1-4377-0324-5.00025-0 · Cited by 37
A 6-year follow-up of fracture incidence and volumetric bone mineral density development in girls with Turner syndrome
Soucek, O., Schönau, E., Lebl, J., Willnecker, J., Hlavka, Z., & Sumnik, Z. (2018) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2017-02381 · Cited by 30
“total bone CSA, led to slightly increased, calculated bone strength at the radial diaphysis, and (4) a longer GH treatment duration was positively associated with a higher cortical vBMD.”
Background
Coagulation and fibrinolytic disturbances are related to carotid intima thickness and arterial blood pressure in Turner syndrome
Gravholt, C. H., Mortensen, K. H., Andersen, N. H., Ibsen, L., Ingerslev, J., & Hjerrild, B. (2011) · Clinical Endocrinology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2265.2011.04190.x · Cited by 33
Imaging of cardiovascular risk in patients with Turner's syndrome
Marin, A., Weir-McCall, J. R., Webb, D. J., van Beek, E. J. R., & Mirsadraee, S. (2015) · Clinical Radiology · doi:10.1016/j.crad.2015.03.009 · Cited by 33
Fertility and Pregnancy in Turner Syndrome
Bouet, P., Godbout, A., Hachem, H. E., Lefebvre, M., Bérubé, L., Dionne, M.-D., Kamga-Ngandé, C., & Lapensée, L. (2016) · Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Canada · doi:10.1016/j.jogc.2016.02.007 · Cited by 33
Body mass index (BMI) in Turner syndrome before and during growth hormone (GH) therapy
Blackett, P. R., Rundle, A. C., Frane, J. W., & Blethen, S. L. (2000) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0801119 · Cited by 33
Kyphosis in a Turner Syndrome Population
Elder, D. A., Roper, M. G., Henderson, R. C., & Davenport, M. L. (2002) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.109.6.e93 · Cited by 33
X-chromosome gene dosage as a determinant of impaired pre and postnatal growth and adult height in Turner syndrome
Fiot, E., Zénaty, D., Boizeau, P., Haigneré, J., Santos, S. D., Léger, J., & _, _. (2015) · European Journal of Endocrinology · doi:10.1530/eje-15-1000 · Cited by 32
Oral Versus Transdermal Estrogen In Turner Syndrome: A Systematic Review And Meta-Analysis
Zaiem, F., Alahdab, F., Nofal, A. A., Murad, M. H., & Javed, A. (2017) · Endocrine Practice · doi:10.4158/ep161622.or · Cited by 34
Bone fragility in Turner syndrome: Fracture prevalence and risk factors determined by a national patient survey
Wasserman, H. M., Backeljauw, P. F., Khoury, J. C., Kalkwarf, H. J., & Gordon, C. M. (2018) · Clinical Endocrinology · doi:10.1111/cen.13614 · Cited by 33
Normal DXA bone mineral density but frail cortical bone in Turner's syndrome
Zuckerman‐Levin, N., Yaniv, I., Schwartz, T., Guttmann, H., & Hochberg, Z. (2007) · Clinical Endocrinology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2265.2007.02835.x · Cited by 32
Medical problems in adult women with Turner's syndrome
Elsheikh, M., Conway, G. S., & Wass, J. A. H. (1999) · Annals of Medicine · doi:10.3109/07853899908998784 · Cited by 32
Considerations for transition from paediatric to adult endocrinology: women with Turner's syndrome
Conway, G. S. (2004) · Growth Hormone & IGF Research · doi:10.1016/j.ghir.2004.03.018 · Cited by 31
Increased occurrence of liver and gastrointestinal diseases and anaemia in women with Turner syndrome—a nationwide cohort study
Viuff, M. H., Stochholm, K., Grønbæk, H., Berglund, A., Juul, S., & Gravholt, C. H. (2021) · Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1111/apt.16277 · Cited by 30
Medical Care of Girls with Turner Syndrome: Where are we Lacking?
Nabhan, Z. M., & Eugster, E. A. (2011) · Endocrine Practice · doi:10.4158/ep11059.or · Cited by 31
Undoing the Gender Binary
Tate, C. C., Hagai, E. B., & Crosby, F. J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108584234 · Cited by 29
Turner Syndrome in Adulthood
Gravholt, C. H. (2005) · Hormone Research in Paediatrics · doi:10.1159/000087763 · Cited by 30
“The key to diagnosis was lymphoedema in 97p during infancy, and short stature in 82p during childhood and adolescence. Due to the nature of the study (only children) no information was given regarding the key to diagnosis in adults. The study also documented that the vast majority of patients had several stigmata at t…”
Background
Proximal aortic stiffening in Turner patients may be present before dilation can be detected: a segmental functional MRI study
Devos, D. G. H., De Groote, K., Babin, D., Demulier, L., Taeymans, Y., Westenberg, J. J., Van Bortel, L., Segers, P., Achten, E., De Schepper, J., et al. (2016) · Journal of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance · doi:10.1186/s12968-017-0331-0 · Cited by 29
“The association of Turner syndrome with aortic wall disease presenting from young age, as we found in our data, is consistent with reports that increased risk of acute aortic dissection is present from as early as the second decade of life [1, 12, 13], and that dissection may occur as early as the first decade of life…”
Background

Authors: Gravholt, C. H., Juul, S., Naeraa, R. W., & Hansen, J.
Affiliations: Aarhus University (DK)
Aarhus University Hospital (DK)
Corresponding author: Gravholt, Claus Højbjerg
ORCID: Gravholt, Claus Højbjerg
Venue: Journal of Clinical Epidemiology
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 1998-02
Volume: 51
Issue: 2
Pages: 147-158
ISSN: 0895-4356 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/s0895-4356(97)00237-0
OpenAlex: W2037733089
Cited by: 548
References: 98
Citations by year: 2026: 8 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 27 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 24 · 2016: 18 · 2015: 26 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 22 · 2012: 22
FWCI: 7.23
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Clinical Epidemiology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic and Clinical Aspects of Sex Determination and Chromosomal Abnormalities
Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Sexual Differentiation and Disorders
Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Down syndrome and intellectual disability research
Keywords: Turner syndrome, morbidity, disease incidence, osteoporotic fractures, diabetes mellitus, type 2 diabetes, type 1 diabetes, ischemic heart disease, hypertension, stroke, cancer risk, metabolic syndrome, dyslipidemia, hyperinsulinemia, hyperuricemia, adult women
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Child, Child, Preschool, Denmark, Female, Humans, Infant, Karyotyping, Middle Aged, Morbidity, Registries, Risk Factors, Turner Syndrome, Comorbidity, Incidence, Age Distribution

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