Neuronal Adaptation to Visual Motion in Area MT of the Macaque

“For instance, evidence for a direct correlate of the MAE in speed-tuned cells of visual area MT has been reported by Kohn and Movshon (2003) and Huk, Ress & Heeger (2001) have reported population level response imbalances in human MT+ that underlie the MAE.”

“The spatial constraints of motion adaptation have recently been investigated in MT neurons of the macaque monkey (Kohn & Movshon, 2003).”

“Macaque physiology supports adaptation in V1 rather than MT because adaptation of MT neurons is observed only locally within the MT receptive field (Kohn and Movshon, 2003).”

“The process of such neural adaptation is well studied in a number of systems, ranging from primate cortical MT neurons (Kohn and Movshon, 2003), through the cat visual (Hu et al.”

“An example of a movement adaptation illusion is the waterfall illusion, in which adaptation to a downward motion creates an illusory-motion aftereffect in the opposite direction (Barlow & Hill, 1963; Kohn & Movshon, 2003; Mather, Verstraten, & Anstis, 1998).”

“Importantly, provided that the stimulus contrast is sufficiently high (Kohn & Movshon, 2003), suppressive interactions between overlapping motion directions are observed even if the contrasts of two components are different (as in the stimuli of Aaen-Stockdale et al., 2009).”

“Third, aggregate measures of neural activity (MUA, LFPs) had substantially different adaptation effects.”

“According to the neurophysiological evidence men - tioned above , the site of this inhibitory adaptation could be anywhere from the LGN ( Singer & Bedworth , 1973 ; Stone & Dreher , 1973 ) to MT ( Kohn & Movshon , 2003 ) including the visual striate cortex ( Albrecht et al .”

“…tuning in visual cortex are diverse (Maffei et al., 1973; Saul and Cynader, 1989; Muller et al., 1999; Dragoi et al., 2000; Priebe and Lisberger, 2002; Van Wezel and Britten, 2002; Kohn and Movshon, 2003, 2004; Jin et al., 2005) and vary across different cortical areas (Kohn and Movshon, 2004).”

“Contrast gain control has been observed in macaque MT, but it is likely based on adaptation earlier in visual processing (Kohn and Movshon 2003).”

“Analogously, adaptation to the variance of higher-order stimulus features is found in visual cortex (Ohzawa et al., 1985; Bonds, 1991; Heeger, 1992; Kohn and Movshon, 2003) and many other sensory systems.”

“For example, in the domain of visual motion processing this has been used to dissociate between motion aftereffects occurring in V1 and those occurring later in processing in areas MT (Kohn & Movshon, 2003).”

“Studies in the vertebrate M pathway show no output range reduction (Solomon et al.2004), and in area MTonly a slight response gain reduction (0.88) is found using spatially distinct PPP experiments similar to those described here (Kohn & Movshon 2003).”

“This type of change in neural responsivity over time is commonly observed at the singleneuron level (Albrecht et al., 1984; Barlow and Hill, 1963; Kohn and Movshon, 2003), and there is no doubt that it happens during aftereffect paradigms.”

“After exposure to motion in this preferred direction, the cell’s response to motion in the same direction is attenuated (Kohn & Movshon, 2003; Van Wezel & Britten, 2002).”

“Basic visual after-effects have been welldocumented after adaptation to motion, contrast, spatial frequency, and orientation (Boynton and Finney, 2003; Durgin and Proffitt, 1996) and occur in early visual processing stages, including the retina (Kohn and Movshon, 2003).”

“The opposite finding that adaptation to motion attenuates firing rates is more common (e.g., Carandini & Ferster, 1997; Hietanen, Crowder, Price, & Ibbotson, 2007; Ibbotson, Clifford, & Mark, 1998; Kohn & Movshon, 2003; Krekelberg et al., 2006a).”

“…rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2013.07.004 q This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-No Derivative Works License, which permits non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the…”

“a non-preferred adapting stimulus [11,12].”

“These gain changes are predominantly attributable to contrast adaptation inherited from the LGN and V1 (Kohn and Movshon, 2003).”

“Evidence for this motion after-effect is also seen in the reduced sensitivity of neurons to their preferred direction of motion after adaptation (Barlow & Hill, 1963), and in neurones in primary visual cortex of primates (Kohn & Movshon, 2003).”

“, 1997), to higher-order motion-sensitive visual neurons in the brain (e.g. de Ruyter van Steveninck et al., 1986; Kohn and Movshon, 2003; Maddess and Laughlin, 1985; Solomon et al., 2004).”

“Downstream mechanisms would presumably inherit these sensitivity changes (Kohn & Movshon, 2003) and thus could continue to show a cardinal axis bias even if the color tuning of the mechanisms at subsequent stages were more uniformly distributed.”

“, 2007) and the neuronal network tended to balance its 16 excitability to recurrent sensory stimuli (Kohn and Movshon, 2003).”

“Given this finding and following the fitting methods of Kohn and Movshon (2003), the value of n was forced to assume a single value for the adapted and unadapted conditions, which was optimized jointly for both conditions.”

“Neurons with pre - ferred directions opposite or nearly opposite to the adapting direction were modeled as not being affected by adapta - tion ( Van Wezel and Britten , 2002 ; Kohn and Movshon , 2003 ) .”

“The question of what effect such suppressive adaptation would have in the absence of an otherwise suppressive stimulus (i.e., to the target alone) is unknown, although it is conceivable that it may produce a reduction in threshold elevation through disinhibition (Kohn & Movshon, 2003).”

“Similarly to macaque MT neurons (Kohn & Movshon 2003, 2004), these cells adapt their response characteristics to prolonged stimulation (Srinivasan & Dvorak 1979; Maddess & Laughlin 1985; de Ruyter van Steveninck et al. 1986; Fairhall et al. 2001).”

“…postadaptation firing reduction Carandini and Ferster, 1997; Sanchez-Vives et al., 2000). imilarly, evidence suggests that the adaptation measured n neurons of the middle temporal area of the parietal lobe n the macaque (area MT) also has its origins in the striate ortex (Kohn and Movshon, 2003).”

“We conclude that the effects of adaptation are well accounted for by an increase in divisive inhibition (b), in agreement with previous data for non-moving stimuli (Foley & Chen, 1997); and with changes in the majority of V5/MT neurones described by Kohn and Movshon (2003).”

“…normalize stimulus-response relationships, adjusting the dynamic range of neural responses to the prevailing stimulus strength in the environment (Kohn & Movshon, 2003; Ohzawa, Sclar, & Freeman, 1985), reduce redundancy in sensory responses (Wainwright, 1999) and increase saliency to novel…”

“…adaptation does not fully account for adaptation effects in high-level visual areas, such as the medial temporal area (MT, Priebe et al., 2002; Kohn & Movshon, 2003) Networked fatigue models also describe adaptation of inhibitory neurons following stimulus exposure and subsequent effects on…”

“This was likely an effect of adaptation, as has previously been reported in area MT (Kohn and Movshon, 2003; Krekelberg et al., 2006; Schlack et al., 2007).”

“However, in the same species, adaptation to a nearpreferred direction causes tuning to shift toward the adapted direction (Kohn and Movshon 2003).”

“Regarding area MT, the most plausible candidate for perception of the MAE, no remapping properties have been described so far, but another form of RF plasticity has been demonstrated in this area by Kohn and Movshon [84]: motion adaptation in one part of the RF did not induce a decreased response to a test stimulus in…”

“Preprint submitted to Hearing Research 21 December 2005”

“…effects occur in multiple levels of the visual system, and there is strong evidence of changes in high-level visual areas as a result of altered input from upstream regions such as early visual cortex (Tolias et al., 2005; Larsson & Harrison, 2015; Solomon et al., 2004; Kohn & Movshon, 2003).”

“…and Hill 1963), of wallabies (Ibbotson 1996), of cats (e.g., Azouz and Gray 2003; Giaschi et al. 1993; Marlin 1993, 1991), and of monkeys (e.g., Kohn and Movshon 2003, 2004), but also in insects and, in particular, in blowflies (e.g., Borst and Egelhaaf 1987; de Ruyter van Steveninck et al.…”

“…a direct impact only at the very early stage of cortical motion processing, and apparent changes in neural activity at the following stages may be just consequences of changes in their feedforward inputs from the early stage (Bartels et al. 2008; Kohn and Movshon 2003; Krekelberg et al. 2006a).”

“Studies of synaptic mechanisms of adaptation indicate that adaptation occurs at the level of input rather than output of a neuron (Priebe et al., 2002; Kohn and Movshon, 2003; Tolias et al., 2005; Sawamura et al., 2006; Carandini et al., 2007).”

“1992; Kohn & Movshon, 2003; Ohzawa et al., 1982, 1985; Sanchez-Vives et al., 2000).”

“Given that there are several physiological evidences that adaptation reduces responses of neurons in the MT when observing motion (Kohn and Movshon 2003; van Wezel and Britten 2002), neural adaptation may cause the decrease in the magnitude of time distortion over time.”

“The expansion of the MT + complex may support improved motion perception (Petersen et al. 1985; Kohn and Movshon 2003; Born and Bradley 2005).”

“In the visual system, the neural site of the motion extraction process is thought to lie in cortical area MT (Albright, 1984; Kohn & Movshon, 2003), whereas the linear filtering operations needed for the computation of spatio-temporal derivatives of the image signal most likely originate in…”

“However, as for the SMAE, both psychophysical (Moulden, 1980) and electrophysiological (Kohn and Movshon, 2003) evidence exist that it is already generated at the level of V1 (for review, see Mather et al., 2008); thus, distortions of the population response during the direction of feature-based…”

“…the T vs C function upwards and rightwards, as predicted by an increase in divisive inhibition (the b parameter in the model), in agreement with previous data for non-moving stimuli (Foley & Chen, 1997); and with changes in the majority of V5/MT neurones described by Kohn and Movshon (2003).”

“Rapid adaptation was previously used to examine the plasticity of orientation and motion tuning in V1 and MT (41, 42), but whether it affects color selectivity is unknown.”

“V1 neurons also adapt to their input (Kohn & Movshon, 2003), and these two facts taken together imply that they would adapt to paired-dot and transparent stimuli, as we and Sekuler and Levinson found.”

“This possibility is theoretically interesting because there is good evidence that the locus of adaptation underlying the MAE is visual area V1 (Kohn & Movshon, 2003).”

“…stimulus (Blake et al., 2006; Blakemore & Campbell, 1969; Carandini, Movshon, & Ferster, 1998; Dragoi, Sharma, & Sur, 2000; Engel, 2005; Kohn & Movshon, 2003; Fang, Murray, Kersten, & He, 2005; Joo et al., 2012; Larsson, Landy, & Heeger, 2006), higher thresholds reflecting higher overall…”

“…Ri to the adaptation stimulus C50,i f Ri (1A) and Rmax,i f Ri (1B) where Rmax is the maximal response of the neuron, and C50 is the contrast that elicits 50% of the maximal response (Albrecht et al. 1984; Kohn and Movshon 2003; Movshon and Lennie 1979; Ohzawa et al. 1982; also see Kohn 2007).”

“Motion adaptation has previously been shown to consist of different physiological components (Harris et al., 2000; Kohn and Movshon, 2003) where the contrast gain reduction is local (Nordström and O’Carroll, 2009) and quickest to appear (Nordström et al., 2011).”