Effects of color and odor on judgments of sweetness among children and adults
Open accessAbstract
Judgments in one sensory modality or dimension are often affected by information in other sensory dimensions even if they do not physically or physiologically interact. Examples of such psychological contextual effects are the enhancing effects of color and odor on judgments of sweetness. Children might be expected to be more influenced by irrelevant dimensions and thus might show increased context effects when asked about specific attributes. Two experiments investigated the effect of color change in a fruit beverage on sweetness judgements and the effects of an added aromatic flavor (vanilla) on judgments of sweetness, creaminess and liking of milk. Three groups of American children were tested, in age groups of 5 to 7, 8 to 10 and 11 to 14-years-old, and their responses and contextual effects were compared to those of adults. The strongest and most consistent effect across age groups was the enhancement of rated sweetness by added vanilla flavor in milk. Children did not show the expected effect of darker red colors raising sweetness judgments in the fruit beverage, and the 11 to 14-year-old group showed a trend in the opposite direction from adults (lighter red color judged as sweeter). The concept of sweetness may be more strongly associated to sweet aroma characteristics at an early age than to specific colors. The differences between adults and the 11 to 14-year-old group could arise from a number of sources, including product experiences, developmental and/ or cohort effects, and are worthy of further study.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Red-coloured drinks enhance sweetness detection, expectations of sweetness, and perceived intensity.
“Specifically, in terms of sweetness, red-coloured drinks have been found to enhance sweetness detection [34], expectations of sweetness [53], and perceived intensity [30,33,35,39,50].”
From The Role of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Sensory Factors in Sweetness Perception of Food and Beverages: A Review (2019) · cites this paper as [35]
This source is cited for perceived sweetness intensity, not for detection or expectations, which have separate citations. The Results (page not provided) report that adults rated dark-red drinks sweeter than light-red drinks, but children did not show the same pattern; 11–14-year-olds rated light-red drinks sweeter. The unqualified claim therefore overstates the finding. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Foundations of Information Integration Theory
Carroll, J. S., & Anderson, N. H. (1982) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1422202 · Cited by 2,105 · see citing works
‘‘Taste-smell confusions” and the duality of the olfactory sense
Rozin, P. (1982) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03202667 · Cited by 627 · see citing works
Color as a factor in food choice
Clydesdale, F. M. (1993) · Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/10408399309527614 · Cited by 463 · see citing works
Taste-smell interactions are tastant and odorant dependent
Frank, R. A., & Byram, J. (1988) · Chemical Senses · doi:10.1093/chemse/13.3.445 · Cited by 359 · see citing works
Stability of cognitive style from childhood to young adulthood.
Witkin, H. A., Goodenough, D. R., & Karp, S. A. (1967) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0025070 · Cited by 347 · see citing works
Limiting response alternatives in time-intensity scaling: an examination of the halo-dumping effect
Clark, C. C., & Lawless, H. T. (1994) · Chemical Senses · doi:10.1093/chemse/19.6.583 · Cited by 324 · see citing works
Self-citationDimensions of preschool children's food preferences
Birch, L. L. (1979) · Journal of Nutrition Education · doi:10.1016/s0022-3182(79)80089-8 · Cited by 282 · see citing works
Taste and olfaction: Independence vs interaction
Murphy, C., & Cain, W. S. (1980) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/0031-9384(80)90257-7 · Cited by 270 · see citing works
The acquisition of taste properties by odors
Stevenson, R. J., Prescott, J., & Boakes, R. A. (1995) · Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0023-9690(05)80006-2 · Cited by 264 · see citing works
Influence of color on taste thresholds
MAGA, J. A. (1974) · Chemical Senses · doi:10.1093/chemse/1.1.115 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
Both perceptual and conceptual factors influence taste-odor and taste-taste interactions
Frank, R. A., van der Klaauw, N. J., & Schifferstein, H. N. J. (1993) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03205269 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
Perceived sweetness and redness in colored sucrose solutions
JOHNSON, J., & CLYDESDALE, F. M. (1982) · Journal of Food Science · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.1982.tb12706.x · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Strawberry odor, but not red color, enhances the sweetness of sucrose solutions
Frank, R. A., Ducheny, K., & Mize, S. J. S. (1989) · Chemical Senses · doi:10.1093/chemse/14.3.371 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
AGE APPROPRIATE HEDONIC SCALES TO MEASURE FOOD PREFERENCES OF YOUNG CHILDREN
CHEN, A. W., Resurreccion, A. V. A., & Paguio, L. P. (1996) · Journal of Sensory Studies · doi:10.1111/j.1745-459x.1996.tb00038.x · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Sensory perception and pleasantness of orange beverages from childhood to old age
Zandstra, E. H., & de Graaf, C. (1998) · Food Quality and Preference · doi:10.1016/s0950-3293(97)00015-3 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Evaluating rating scales for sensory testing with children
Kroll, B. J. (1990) · Food technology · Cited by 146 · see citing works
What children can tell us: eliciting, interpreting, and evaluating information from children
(1990) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.27-5414 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Adult-Like Odor Preferences and Aversions in Three-Year-Old Children
Schmidt, H. J., & Beauchamp, G. K. (1988) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1130280 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Sensory testing with young children.
Kimmel, S., Grant, M. S., & Guinard, J. (1994) · Food technology · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Sensory studies with sucrose-maltol mixtures
Bingham, A. F., BIRCH, G. G., de Graaf, C., Behan, J., & Perring, K. D. (1990) · Chemical Senses · doi:10.1093/chemse/15.4.447 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
New Directions for Product Testing and Sensory Analysis of Foods
MOSKOWITZ, H. R. (1985) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Enns, M. P., Itallie, T. B. V., & Grinker, J. A. (1979) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/0031-9384(79)90346-9 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Roth, H., RADLE, L. J., GIFFORD, S. R., & Clydesdale, F. M. (1988) · Journal of Food Science · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.1988.tb13543.x · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Research on the Clinical Interview
Young, J. G., O'BRIEN, J. D., Gutterman, E. M., & Cohen, P. R. (1987) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/00004583-198709000-00002 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Scaling component intensities of complex stimuli: The influence of response alternatives
van der Klaauw, N. J., & Frank, R. A. (1996) · Environment International · doi:10.1016/0160-4120(95)00100-x · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Consumer Age Affects Response to Sensory Characteristics of a Cherry Flavored Beverage
PHILIPSEN, D. H., Clydesdale, F. M., Griffin, R., & STERN, P. (1995) · Journal of Food Science · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.1995.tb05674.x · Cited by 78 · see citing works
The Development of Selective Attention as Reflected by Event-Related Brain Potentials
Berman, S. M., & Friedman, D. (1995) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1006/jecp.1995.1001 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Psychophysical Relationships Between Perceived Sweetness and Color in Cherry-Flavored Beverages
Johnson, J. L., Dzendolet, E., Damon, R. A., Sawyer, M., & Clydesdale, F. M. (1982) · Journal of Food Protection · doi:10.4315/0362-028x-45.7.601 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
The Influence of Color on Discrimination of Sweetness and Sourness in Pear-Nectar
Pangborn, R. M., & Hansen, B. (1963) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1419171 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
The influence of flavor and color on drink identification by children and adults
Oram, N., Laing, D. G., Hutchinson, I., Owen, J., Rose, G., Freeman, M., & Newell, G. (1995) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.420280405 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
A note on the developmental nature of reflection–impulsivity.
Salkind, N. J., & Nelson, C. F. (1980) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.16.3.237 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Relative Importance of Color, Fruity Flavor and Sweetness in the Overall Liking of Soft Drinks
Tuorila, H., Mahlamäki‐Kultanen, S., & Kurkela, R. (1984) · Journal of Food Science · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.1984.tb12852.x · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Handling the Neutral Vote in Paired Comparison Product Testing
Odesky, S. H. (1967) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1177/002224376700400213 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Coetzee, H., & TAYLOR, J. R. N. (1996) · Food Quality and Preference · doi:10.1016/0950-3293(95)00039-9 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Methods for Determining the Locus of Context Effects in Judgment
Wedell, D. H. (1990) · Advances in psychology · doi:10.1016/s0166-4115(08)61329-1 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
The influence of intensity of colour on perceived flavour characteristics.
Norton, W. E., & Johnson, F. (1987) · Medical science research · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Tharp, B., & Gottemoller, T. V. (1990) · Food technology · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 3
- Birch, L. L. (1979) Dimensions of preschool children's pre- ference. Journal of Nutrition Education 11, 77-80.
- Lavin, J. G. (1997) Effects of color and odor on sweetness and other attributes as rated by subjects of different ages. M.Sc., Thesis, Cornell University.
- Schraidt, M. F. (1991) Testing with children. ASTM Standar- dization News 19(3), 4245.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS THAT INCREASE THE FOOD INTAKE AND CONSUMPTION VOLUME OF UNKNOWING CONSUMERS
Wansink, B. (2004) · Annual Review of Nutrition · doi:10.1146/annurev.nutr.24.012003.132140 · Cited by 1,036 · see citing works
Does food color influence taste and flavor perception in humans?
Spence, C., Levitan, C. A., Shankar, M. U., & Zampini, M. (2010) · Chemosensory Perception · doi:10.1007/s12078-010-9067-z · Cited by 540 · see citing works
On the psychological impact of food colour
Spence, C. (2015) · Flavour · doi:10.1186/s13411-015-0031-3 · Cited by 481 · see citing works
Ares, G., & Deliza, R. (2010) · Food Quality and Preference · doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2010.03.006 · Cited by 357 · see citing works
Grape expectations: The role of cognitive influences in color-flavor interactions
Shankar, M. U., Levitan, C. A., & Spence, C. (2010) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2009.08.008 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
Spence, C., Velasco, C., & Knoeferle, K. (2014) · Flavour · doi:10.1186/2044-7248-3-8 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Wang, Q. J., Mielby, L. A., Junge, J. Y., Bertelsen, A. S., Kidmose, U., Spence, C., & Byrne, D. V. (2019) · Foods · doi:10.3390/foods8060211 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
“Specifically, in terms of sweetness, red-coloured drinks have been found to enhance sweetness detection [33], expectations of sweetness [52], and perceived intensity [29,32,34,38,49].”
BackgroundInfluentialZampini, M., Wantling, E., Phillips, N., & Spence, C. (2008) · Food Quality and Preference · doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2007.11.001 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Modulation of perceived taste by olfaction in familiar and unfamiliar beverages
Labbe, D., Damevin, L., Vaccher, C., Morgenegg, C., & Martin, N. (2006) · Food Quality and Preference · doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2006.04.006 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Sugar reduction in probiotic chocolate-flavored milk: Impact on dynamic sensory profile and liking
Oliveira, D., Antúnez, L., Giménez, A., Castura, J. C., Deliza, R., & Ares, G. (2015) · Food Research International · doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2015.05.050 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Optimisation of food expectations using product colour and appearance
Wei, S.-T., Ou, L.-C., Luo, M. R., & Hutchings, J. B. (2012) · Food Quality and Preference · doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2011.07.004 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Subthreshold olfactory stimulation can enhance sweetness
Labbe, D., Rytz, A., Morgenegg, C., Ali, S., & Martin, N. (2007) · Chemical Senses · doi:10.1093/chemse/bjl040 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Temporal synchrony and integration of sub-threshold taste and smell signals
Pfeiffer, J. C., Hollowood, T. A., Hort, J., & Taylor, A. J. (2005) · Chemical Senses · doi:10.1093/chemse/bji047 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Investigation of the effects of color on judgments of sweetness using a taste adaptation method
Hidaka, S., & Shimoda, K. (2014) · Multisensory Research · doi:10.1163/22134808-00002455 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
- Authors
- Lavin, J. G., & Lawless, H. T.
- Affiliations
- Cornell University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Lawless, Harry T.
- Venue
- Food Quality and Preference
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1998-07
- Volume
- 9
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 283-289
- ISSN
- 0950-3293 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2025527109
- Cited by
- 166
- References
- 37
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 7 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 4.49
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Food Quality and Preference (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Sensory Analysis and Statistical Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Multisensory perception and integration
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Color perception and design
- Keywords
- cross-modal correspondence, children versus adults, age differences, fruit beverages, milk, vanilla flavor, creaminess, food liking
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
