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Cited by 123COVID-19 and Mental HealthClimate Change Communication and PerceptionClimate Change and Health Impacts

Psychological responses, mental health, and sense of agency for the dual challenges of climate change and the COVID-19 pandemic in young people in the UK: an online survey study

Open access
Lawrance, Emma L, Jennings, Neil, Kioupi, Vasiliki, Thompson, Rhiannon, Diffey, James, Vercammen, Ans·2022·The Lancet Planetary Health
DOI 10.1016/s2542-5196(22)00172-3PMC PMC9451498
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Abstract

Background The COVID-19 pandemic and climate change are both significant and pressing global challenges, posing threats to public health and wellbeing. Young people are particularly vulnerable to the distress both crises can cause, but understanding of the varied psychological responses to both issues is poor. We aimed to investigate these responses and their links with mental health conditions and feelings of agency. Methods We conducted an online survey between Aug 5 and Oct 26, 2020, targeting a diverse sample of young people (aged 16–24 years, n=530) in the UK. The survey was distributed using a combination of a survey panel (panel sample) and direct approaches to youth groups and schools who shared the survey with young people in their networks (community sample). We collected data on respondents' psychological responses to both climate change and the COVID-19 pandemic, their sense of agency to respond to each crisis, and the range of impacts on their lives. We also collected demographics data and screened for mental health and wellbeing indicators. We used non-parametric tests for most statistical comparisons. For paired samples, we used Wilcoxon's signed-rank test, and used Mann-Whitney U-tests or Kruskal-Wallis tests for two or more independent samples. Summed scale scores were considered as interval-level data and analysed with Student's t tests and ANOVAs. Effect sizes are reported as Cohen's d and partial eta-squared (η· 2 p ), respectively. Findings After excluding 18 suspected bots and 94 incomplete responses, 530 responses were retained for analysis. Of the 518 respondents who provided demographic data, 63% were female, 71·4% were White, and the mean family affluence score was 8·22 (SD 2·29). Most participants (n=343; 70%) did not report a history of diagnosis or treatment for a mental health disorder, but mental health scores indicated a common experience of (relatively mild) symptoms of anxiety, depression, and stress. Although UK youth reported more life disruption and concern for their future due to the COVID-19 pandemic, climate change was associated with significantly greater distress overall, particularly for individuals with low levels of generalised anxiety. The COVID-19 pandemic was more associated with feelings of anxiety, isolation, disconnection, and frustration; distress around loss and grief; and effects on quality of life. Climate change was more likely to evoke emotions such as interest and engagement, guilt, shame, anger, and disgust. The greater distress attributed to climate change overall was due, in particular, to higher levels of guilt, sense of personal responsibility, and greater distress triggered by upsetting media coverage. Agency to address climate change was associated with greater climate distress, but pandemic-related distress and agency were unrelated. Interpretation The COVID-19 pandemic and climate change are affecting the wellbeing of UK young people in distinct ways, with implications for health service, policy, and research responses. There is a need for mental health practitioners, policy makers, and other societal actors to account for the complex relationship between climate agency, distress, and mental wellbeing in young people. Funding Imperial College London.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In an online survey of 530 UK young people aged 16–24, climate change elicited significantly greater overall distress than the COVID-19 pandemic, even though the pandemic caused more reported disruption to daily life. Climate distress was associated with greater sense of agency, whereas pandemic-related distress and agency were unrelated.

Key findings

  • Climate distress was slightly but significantly higher than pandemic distress (mean 13·08, SD 6·60 vs 11·55, SD 5·85; t(523)=–6·27, p<0·0001, d=0·27), despite the pandemic having greater perceived negative impact (77% at least moderate vs 64% reporting no/a little for climate; Z –13·821, p<0·0001, r=0·60).
  • The crises evoked distinct emotional patterns: the pandemic was more associated with anxiety, isolation, disconnection, and frustration; climate change was more associated with interest/engagement, guilt, shame, anger, and disgust.
  • Climate distress was linked to guilt, personal responsibility, and distress from upsetting media coverage; pandemic distress was linked to loss/grief and quality-of-life concerns.
  • High climate agency was associated with higher climate distress (13·79, SD 6·29 vs 9·43, SD 6·97; t(523)=–5·854, p<0·0001, d=0·68), while pandemic distress did not differ by pandemic-related agency (11·59 vs 11·11; p=0·534, d=0·08).

Methods

  • Online survey conducted Aug 5–Oct 26, 2020, targeting UK residents aged 16–24 years; 530 responses retained after excluding 18 suspected bots and 94 incomplete responses. Recruitment combined a Prolific survey panel and direct approaches to youth groups and schools.
  • Measures included demographics, Family Affluence Scale-III, GAD-7, PHQ-9, Perceived Stress Scale-4, life satisfaction, adapted COVID-19 and climate impact questionnaires, climate/pandemic distress scales, emotion items, and agency/activism items.
  • Analyses used non-parametric tests for ordinal data (Wilcoxon signed-rank, Mann-Whitney U, Kruskal-Wallis) and t tests/ANOVAs for summed scale scores, with Bonferroni corrections and effect sizes reported as r, ε², Cohen’s d, and partial eta-squared.

Limitations

  • The paper states the study is a single-country UK snapshot from the early pandemic period, so results might not generalise outside the UK and may vary with pandemic severity, duration, and restrictions.
  • The paper states the sample was modest and partly recruited through convenience sampling, with possible self-selection bias; a larger representative study is needed to examine demographic groups and intersecting vulnerabilities.
  • The paper notes that interference with daily life was probed with a single question, and future research should use multidimensional assessments; the text also makes evident that the cross-sectional design cannot establish causal or directional relationships, and the analyses were exploratory and not formally preregistered.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/s2542-5196(22)00172-3

Cites

42 of 42 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

13 of 27 cited sources checked · 6 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    As public worry about COVID-19 increased and the media paid less attention to climate change, people's concern over the climate did not appear to abate.

    “By contrast to the finite pool of worry hypothesis, as public worry about COVID-19 increased and the media paid less attention to climate change, people's concern over the climate did not appear to abate.9”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [9] Sisco, 2020, A finite pool of worry or a finite pool of attention? Evidence and qualifications, Res Sq source
  • Premisecitation

    Evidence published in 2021 links negative climate emotions to worsened mental health.

    “The consensus among mental health professionals is that most of these feelings and experiences represent adaptive responses and do not constitute a mental illness in themselves, although they might constitute a stressor that worsens mental health, and evidence published in 2021 links negative climate emotions to worsened mental health.16”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [16] Ogunbode, 2021, Negative emotions about climate change are related to insomnia symptoms and mental health: cross-sectional evidence from 25 countries, Curr Psychol source
  • Findingnone given

    Young people are less convinced their actions would be efficacious on climate change than on the COVID-19 pandemic.

    “Specifically, they feel less capable of taking action and less convinced their actions would be efficacious.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Summed scale scores can be treated as interval-level data.
    • Rests on an assumption: The sample of UK young people recruited via panel and community sampling is representative of UK young people for the purpose of generalising the findings.
    • Rests on an assumption: The panel and community samples can be combined and treated as a single sample.
  • Findingnone given

    Young people reported significantly lower overall agency to address the climate crisis versus the COVID-19 crisis.

    “For example, young people feel more guilty about climate change than the COVID-19 pandemic, but also reported significantly lower overall agency to address the climate crisis versus the COVID-19 crisis.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Summed scale scores can be treated as interval-level data.
    • Rests on an assumption: The sample of UK young people recruited via panel and community sampling is representative of UK young people for the purpose of generalising the findings.
    • Rests on an assumption: The panel and community samples can be combined and treated as a single sample.
  • Findingown data

    Moderate levels of distress about both crises are widespread among young people.

    “We report that moderate levels of distress about both crises are widespread, with young people more distressed by the climate crisis than the pandemic, despite the pandemic having a greater impact on their daily life.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Summed scale scores can be treated as interval-level data.
    • Rests on an assumption: The adapted pandemic distress scale is equivalent to the climate change distress scale.
    • Rests on an assumption: The sample of UK young people recruited via panel and community sampling is representative of UK young people for the purpose of generalising the findings.
    • Rests on an assumption: The panel and community samples can be combined and treated as a single sample.
  • May combine two claims. 41
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 35
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 7

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Evidence is mounting of potentially long-lasting consequences of the pandemic on mental health, with young people identified as particularly vulnerable-although the evidence is still not definitive.

    “At the same time, evidence is mounting of potentially long-lasting consequences of the pandemic on mental health, with young people identified as particularly vulnerable—although the evidence is still not definitive.2, 21, 24, 25, 26, 27”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim3 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [2] Xiong, 2020, Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on mental health in the general population: a systematic review, J Affect Disord source

      The Results section identifies younger adults (≤40 years) and students as groups reporting more adverse psychiatric symptoms during the pandemic. The Discussion says follow-up studies may be needed to assess long-term impacts; it does not establish mounting evidence that those impacts will be long-lasting. No page numbers are available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [21] Ford, 2021, Mental health of children and young people during pandemic, BMJ source
    • cites [24] Cullen, 2020, Mental health in the COVID-19 pandemic, QJM source

      The paper anticipates anxiety, depression and possible later post-traumatic stress disorder during COVID-19, while framing these effects as hypotheses rather than definitive findings. It does not identify young people as particularly vulnerable to COVID-19’s mental-health effects; its discussion of children concerns a study of the 2009 H1N1 outbreak. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A 2022 meta-analysis showed that the proportion of individuals with onset of any mental disorders before the age of 25 was 62·5%, supporting the idea that adolescence and young adulthood might be a key period of vulnerability to psychological impacts.

    “A 2022 meta-analysis28 showed that the proportion of individuals with onset of any mental disorders before the age of 25 was 62·5%, supporting the idea that adolescence and young adulthood might be a key period of vulnerability to psychological impacts.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [28] Solmi, 2022, Age at onset of mental disorders worldwide: large-scale meta-analysis of 192 epidemiological studies, Mol Psychiatry source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    We used the six-item Family Affluence Scale-III, which assesses common material assets or activities, to estimate the relative socioeconomic position of respondents in society.

    “We used the six-item Family Affluence Scale-III,33 which assesses common material assets or activities, to estimate the relative socioeconomic position of respondents in society (appendix p 5).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [33] Hartley, 2016, A new version of the HBSC Family Affluence Scale–FAS III: Scottish qualitative findings from the International FAS Development Study, Child Indic Res source

      The Introduction describes FAS as a measure of material resources, consumption and purchasing power, and the FAS III Development and Validation Study section says the revised scale was intended to compare relative inequalities between groups of children. The paper therefore supports using FAS III as a proxy for socioeconomic position, but the passages found do not establish that the version used was a six-item scale. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Both crises bring uncertainty, loss, and change, and induce grief, anxiety, and distress.

    “Both crises bring uncertainty, loss, and change, and induce grief, anxiety, and distress.8”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [8] Grupe, 2013, Uncertainty and anticipation in anxiety: an integrated neurobiological and psychological perspective, Nat Rev Neurosci source

      The paper’s ‘Uncertainty, unpredictability, and uncontrollability’ section links uncertainty to anxiety, and ‘Inflated estimates of threat cost and probability’ links uncertain negative outcomes to anticipatory distress (page numbers unavailable). It does not establish that the two crises involve loss and change or induce grief. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A 2020 systematic review has identified an urgent need for approaches that are more participatory, interdisciplinary, creative, and affect-driven, to involve young people actively in climate solutions.

    “A 2020 systematic review has identified an urgent need for approaches that are more participatory, interdisciplinary, creative, and affect-driven, to involve young people actively in climate solutions.50”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [50] Rousell, 2020, A systematic review of climate change education: giving children and young people a ‘voice’ and a ‘hand’ in redressing climate change, Child Geogr source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Observations from young people in 28 countries suggest that engagement with climate issues and negative beliefs about the global future might be related to both climate distress and higher self-efficacy.

    “and observations available in Feb, 2022 (preprint) from young people in 28 countries suggest that engagement with climate issues and negative beliefs about the global future might be related to both climate distress and higher self-efficacy.48”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [48] Ogunbode, 2022, Climate anxiety, pro-environmental action and wellbeing: antecedents and outcomes of negative emotional responses to climate change in 28 countries, OSF Preprints source

      The Participants and procedure section reports a predominantly young sample from 28 countries, and §4.1.1 links attention to climate-related media with negative climate-related emotions. The paper does not report that negative beliefs about the global future relate to distress or that either factor relates to higher self-efficacy; §4.1.1 offers efficacy only as a possible explanation for a link between media exposure and wellbeing. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Distress responses do not necessarily signal defeat, and some level of worry might facilitate engagement and be salutary rather than debilitating.

    “This finding suggests that distress responses do not necessarily signal defeat, and some level of worry might facilitate engagement39 and be salutary rather than debilitating.31”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [39] Smith, 2014, The role of emotion in global warming policy support and opposition, Risk Anal source
    • cites [31] Reser

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    There is conflicting evidence on the association between depression, anxiety, and climate-related anxiety and functional impairment.

    “Although there is conflicting evidence on the association between depression, anxiety, and climate-related anxiety and functional impairment,30, 44, 45, 46”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [30] Clayton, 2020, Development and validation of a measure of climate change anxiety, J Environ Psychol source
    • cites [44] Verplanken, 2020, On the nature of eco-anxiety: how constructive or unconstructive is habitual worry about global warming?, J Environ Psychol source
    • cites [45] Verplanken, 2013, “My worries are rational, climate change is not”: habitual ecological worrying is an adaptive response, PLoS One source

      The Results (page unavailable) report a near-zero correlation between habitual ecological worrying and pathological worry, supporting a limited point about climate-related worry and anxiety-related symptoms. The paper does not assess depression or functional impairment, and it does not establish conflicting evidence about their associations with climate-related anxiety. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [46] Berry, 2015, Worrying about climate change: is it responsible to promote public debate?, BJPsych Int source

      The Methods section says the study screened symptoms of anxiety and depression, and the Discussion reports no substantial link between community worry about climate change and population-level psychiatric morbidity. This provides one finding relevant to the claimed association, but the paper does not assess functional impairment or establish that the evidence is conflicting. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.78)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Climate change was more likely to evoke guilt, shame, anger, and disgust than the COVID-19 pandemic.

    “Climate change was more likely to evoke emotions such as interest and engagement, guilt, shame, anger, and disgust.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Summed scale scores can be treated as interval-level data.
    • Rests on an assumption: The sample of UK young people recruited via panel and community sampling is representative of UK young people for the purpose of generalising the findings.
    • Rests on an assumption: The panel and community samples can be combined and treated as a single sample.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Guilt, a sense of responsibility, and low agency were greater for climate change than for the COVID-19 pandemic.

    “Comparing the different contributions to distress assessed by the scale (figure 1 ) shows that loss or grief and concern over effects on quality of life were greater for the COVID-19 pandemic than for climate change; whereas guilt, a sense of responsibility, and low agency were greater for climate change than for the COVID-19 pandemic.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Summed scale scores can be treated as interval-level data.
    • Rests on an assumption: The adapted pandemic distress scale is equivalent to the climate change distress scale.
    • Rests on an assumption: The sample of UK young people recruited via panel and community sampling is representative of UK young people for the purpose of generalising the findings.
    • Rests on an assumption: The panel and community samples can be combined and treated as a single sample.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Both crises are associated with distinct patterns of psychological responses, with different contributing sources of distress and emotions.

    “Both crises are associated with distinct patterns of psychological responses, with different contributing sources of distress and emotions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Summed scale scores can be treated as interval-level data.
    • Rests on an assumption: The adapted pandemic distress scale is equivalent to the climate change distress scale.
    • Rests on an assumption: The sample of UK young people recruited via panel and community sampling is representative of UK young people for the purpose of generalising the findings.
    • Rests on an assumption: The panel and community samples can be combined and treated as a single sample.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Mental health scores across the sample indicated a common experience of relatively mild symptoms of anxiety, depression, and stress, with high correlation between these symptoms and no gender-related differences.

    “Mental health scores across the sample indicated a common experience of (relatively mild) symptoms of anxiety, depression, and stress—with high correlation between these symptoms and no gender-related differences (appendix pp 9–10).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Summed scale scores can be treated as interval-level data.
    • Rests on an assumption: The sample of UK young people recruited via panel and community sampling is representative of UK young people for the purpose of generalising the findings.
    • Rests on an assumption: The panel and community samples can be combined and treated as a single sample.

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    The COVID-19 pandemic was more associated with feelings of anxiety, isolation, disconnection, and frustration than climate change.

    “The COVID-19 pandemic was more associated with feelings of anxiety, isolation, disconnection, and frustration; distress around loss and grief; and effects on quality of life.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Summed scale scores can be treated as interval-level data.
    • Rests on an assumption: The sample of UK young people recruited via panel and community sampling is representative of UK young people for the purpose of generalising the findings.
    • Rests on an assumption: The panel and community samples can be combined and treated as a single sample.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Climate distress was associated with greater agency to contribute to addressing the crisis, with no such relationship for the COVID-19 pandemic.

    “Climate distress was associated with greater agency to contribute to addressing the crisis, with no such relationship for the COVID-19 pandemic.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Summed scale scores can be treated as interval-level data.
    • Rests on an assumption: The sample of UK young people recruited via panel and community sampling is representative of UK young people for the purpose of generalising the findings.
    • Rests on an assumption: The panel and community samples can be combined and treated as a single sample.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Loss or grief and concern over effects on quality of life were greater for the COVID-19 pandemic than for climate change.

    “Comparing the different contributions to distress assessed by the scale (figure 1 ) shows that loss or grief and concern over effects on quality of life were greater for the COVID-19 pandemic than for climate change; whereas guilt, a sense of responsibility, and low agency were greater for climate change than for the COVID-19 pandemic.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Summed scale scores can be treated as interval-level data.
    • Rests on an assumption: The adapted pandemic distress scale is equivalent to the climate change distress scale.
    • Rests on an assumption: The sample of UK young people recruited via panel and community sampling is representative of UK young people for the purpose of generalising the findings.
    • Rests on an assumption: The panel and community samples can be combined and treated as a single sample.

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    The COVID-19 pandemic was more associated with effects on quality of life than climate change.

    “The COVID-19 pandemic was more associated with feelings of anxiety, isolation, disconnection, and frustration; distress around loss and grief; and effects on quality of life.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Summed scale scores can be treated as interval-level data.
    • Rests on an assumption: The sample of UK young people recruited via panel and community sampling is representative of UK young people for the purpose of generalising the findings.
    • Rests on an assumption: The panel and community samples can be combined and treated as a single sample.

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    The greater distress attributed to climate change overall was due to higher levels of guilt.

    “The greater distress attributed to climate change overall was due, in particular, to higher levels of guilt, sense of personal responsibility, and greater distress triggered by upsetting media coverage.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Summed scale scores can be treated as interval-level data.
    • Rests on an assumption: The adapted pandemic distress scale is equivalent to the climate change distress scale.
    • Rests on an assumption: The sample of UK young people recruited via panel and community sampling is representative of UK young people for the purpose of generalising the findings.
    • Rests on an assumption: The panel and community samples can be combined and treated as a single sample.

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    The COVID-19 pandemic was more associated with distress around loss and grief than climate change.

    “The COVID-19 pandemic was more associated with feelings of anxiety, isolation, disconnection, and frustration; distress around loss and grief; and effects on quality of life.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Summed scale scores can be treated as interval-level data.
    • Rests on an assumption: The sample of UK young people recruited via panel and community sampling is representative of UK young people for the purpose of generalising the findings.
    • Rests on an assumption: The panel and community samples can be combined and treated as a single sample.

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    The greater distress attributed to climate change overall was due to a higher sense of personal responsibility.

    “The greater distress attributed to climate change overall was due, in particular, to higher levels of guilt, sense of personal responsibility, and greater distress triggered by upsetting media coverage.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Summed scale scores can be treated as interval-level data.
    • Rests on an assumption: The adapted pandemic distress scale is equivalent to the climate change distress scale.
    • Rests on an assumption: The sample of UK young people recruited via panel and community sampling is representative of UK young people for the purpose of generalising the findings.
    • Rests on an assumption: The panel and community samples can be combined and treated as a single sample.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The reported sense of avoidability of the crisis, control over forces of nature, and influence over others' behaviour were all low for both crises, although lack of control was less pronounced for the COVID-19 pandemic than for climate change.

    “The reported sense of avoidability of the crisis, control over forces of nature, and influence over others’ behaviour were all low for both crises, although lack of control was less pronounced for the COVID-19 pandemic than for climate change.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Climate change was more likely to evoke interest and engagement, but also difficult emotions such as guilt, shame, anger, and disgust.

    “Climate change was more likely to evoke interest and engagement, but also difficult emotions such as guilt, shame, anger, and disgust.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Climate change was perceived as more distressing than the COVID-19 pandemic, and this distress was particularly linked to feeling guilty, responsible, and upset by media coverage.

    “Climate change was perceived as more distressing than the COVID-19 pandemic, and this distress was particularly linked to feeling guilty, responsible, and upset by media coverage.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Feelings of helplessness, sadness, and fear were notable and similar for both crises.

    “Feelings of helplessness, sadness, and fear were notable and similar for both crises.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Generalised anxiety levels did not differ between respondents with low versus high climate change-related agency, although there was a marginal trend towards higher anxiety levels being associated with low agency.

    “or between those with low (mean score 9·01, SD 5·75) versus high (mean score 7·90, SD 5·43) climate change-related agency (t[523]=1·735, p=0·083, d=0·20), although the latter showed a marginal trend towards higher anxiety levels being associated with low agency.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Interference was typically perceived as moderate for the pandemic, and mild for climate change.

    “The median scores indicated that interference was typically perceived as moderate for the pandemic, and mild for climate change.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Summed scale scores can be treated as interval-level data.
    • Rests on an assumption: The sample of UK young people recruited via panel and community sampling is representative of UK young people for the purpose of generalising the findings.
    • Rests on an assumption: The panel and community samples can be combined and treated as a single sample.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    The following agency sub-dimensions were higher for climate change: (1) the ability of humanity to control the crisis, and the perceived ability of one's behaviour to (2) change one's perspective and (3) influence others' behaviour.

    “although the following agency sub-dimensions were higher for climate change: (1) the ability of humanity to control the crisis, and the perceived ability of one's behaviour to (2) change one's perspective and (3) influence others’ behaviour.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingnone given

    The pandemic had a larger impact on daily life than climate change.

    “whereas the pandemic had a larger impact on daily life.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Respondents most strongly reported that they had awareness of and capability to respond to both crises, although at significantly higher levels for the COVID-19 pandemic than for climate change.

    “Respondents most strongly reported that they had awareness of and capability to respond to both crises, although at significantly higher levels for the COVID-19 pandemic than for climate change (figure 4 ).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The respondents felt more aware, more capable, and more effective in their actions against the spread of COVID-19.

    “By comparison, the respondents felt more aware, more capable, and more effective in their actions against the spread of COVID-19.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    We observed some gender differences with respect to self-reported distress levels.

    “Further, although we observed some gender differences with respect to self-reported distress levels”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Pandemic-related distress was linked to loss and grief, and diminished quality of life.

    “Pandemic-related distress was linked to loss and grief, and diminished quality of life.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Respondents with no or low general anxiety were more distressed by climate change than by the COVID-19 pandemic, whereas respondents with moderate or severe anxiety tended to be equally (and more strongly) concerned with both.

    “Respondents with no or low general anxiety were more distressed by climate change than by the COVID-19 pandemic, whereas respondents with moderate or severe anxiety tended to be equally (and more strongly) concerned with both (figure 3 ; pairwise).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Distress about the COVID-19 pandemic and climate change was higher for individuals experiencing generalised anxiety, but even those with low generalised anxiety expressed some feelings of distress about climate change.

    “Distress about the COVID-19 pandemic and climate change was higher for individuals experiencing generalised anxiety, but even those with low generalised anxiety expressed some feelings of distress about climate change.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The COVID-19 pandemic gave rise to feelings of anxiety, isolation, disconnection, and frustration.

    “with the COVID-19 pandemic giving rise to feelings of anxiety, isolation, disconnection, and frustration.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Many young people appear to feel responsibility to act on climate change, but are less likely to believe in the value of their actions than for the pandemic.

    “many young people appear to feel responsibility to act on climate change, but are less likely to believe in the value of their actions than for the pandemic.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Young people who were more distressed about climate change were also more likely to report a sense of agency, whereas pandemic-related distress showed no associations with self-reported agency.

    “Interestingly, young people who were more distressed about climate change were also more likely to report a sense of agency, whereas pandemic-related distress showed no associations with self-reported agency.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Relatively low levels of hope and courage were reported for both crises, although courage was slightly higher for climate change than for the pandemic.

    “Relatively low levels of hope and courage were reported for both crises, although courage was slightly higher for climate change than for the pandemic.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The survey was adapted based on a consultation process with the study's Young Persons' Advisory Group (YPAG) in June-July, 2020.

    “The survey was adapted based on a consultation process with the study's Young Persons’ Advisory Group (YPAG) in June–July, 2020.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Young people in the UK care about and are distressed by climate change even when it is not directly affecting their quality of life.

    “Young people in the UK care about and are distressed by climate change even when it is not directly affecting their quality of life.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Summed scale scores can be treated as interval-level data.
    • Rests on an assumption: The adapted pandemic distress scale is equivalent to the climate change distress scale.
    • Rests on an assumption: The sample of UK young people recruited via panel and community sampling is representative of UK young people for the purpose of generalising the findings.
    • Rests on an assumption: The panel and community samples can be combined and treated as a single sample.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    We excluded respondents with large amounts of missing data (>50%) from the dataset but retained those with missing data on a pairwise basis.

    “We excluded respondents with large amounts of missing data (>50%) from the dataset but retained those with missing data on a pairwise basis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The consensus among mental health professionals is that most of these feelings and experiences represent adaptive responses and do not constitute a mental illness in themselves, although they might constitute a stressor that worsens mental health.

    “The consensus among mental health professionals is that most of these feelings and experiences represent adaptive responses and do not constitute a mental illness in themselves, although they might constitute a stressor that worsens mental health, and evidence published in 2021 links negative climate emotions to worsened mental health.16”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [16] Ogunbode, 2021, Negative emotions about climate change are related to insomnia symptoms and mental health: cross-sectional evidence from 25 countries, Curr Psychol source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A 2021 large global survey revealed widespread anxiety and dissatisfaction with government responses to climate change and highlighted that these feelings were impacting young people's daily functioning.

    “A 2021 large global survey revealed widespread anxiety and dissatisfaction with government responses to climate change and highlighted that these feelings were impacting young people's daily functioning.23”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [23] Hickman, 2021, Climate anxiety in children and young people and their beliefs about government responses to climate change: a global survey, Lancet Planet Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    After excluding 18 suspected bots and 94 incomplete responses, 530 responses were retained for analysis.

    “After excluding 18 suspected bots and 94 incomplete responses, 530 responses were retained for analysis.”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “After excluding 18 suspected bots and 94 incomplete responses, 530 responses were retained for analysis.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The study protocol was reviewed and received approval from Imperial College London's science, engineering, and technology research ethics committee.

    “The study protocol was reviewed and received approval from Imperial College London's science, engineering, and technology research ethics committee.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    81% of UK respondents to an international public opinion poll conducted in late 2020 believed in the existence of a climate emergency, the highest of any of the 50 countries included in the survey.

    “Although the UK is not one of the countries most exposed to recent extreme weather events associated with climate change,12 81% of UK respondents to an international public opinion poll conducted in late 2020 believed in the existence of a climate emergency, the highest of any of the 50 countries included in the survey.13”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13] Flynn

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    We used the climate change distress scale, which was developed and validated by Reser and colleagues, and adapted this scale to create an equivalent measure of pandemic distress.

    “We used the climate change distress scale, which was developed and validated by Reser and colleagues,31 and adapted this scale to create an equivalent measure of pandemic distress.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [31] Reser

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The analyses were guided by the a priori established research objectives, but the hypotheses and analyses were not formally preregistered.

    “The analyses were guided by the a priori established research objectives, but the hypotheses and analyses were not formally preregistered.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Written informed consent was obtained from all respondents.

    “Written informed consent was obtained from all respondents.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    We combined Reser and colleagues' self-efficacy and personal responsibility composite scales to measure self-reported agency to respond to climate change, and we adapted this scale to measure self-reported agency regarding the COVID-19 pandemic.

    “We combined Reser and colleagues’ self-efficacy and personal responsibility composite scales31 to measure self-reported agency to respond to climate change, and we adapted this scale to measure self-reported agency regarding the COVID-19 pandemic.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [31] Reser

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationown data

    The period of identity formation in early adulthood provides an opportunity for positive psychological adaptation.

    “which might suggest that the period of identity formation in early adulthood provides an opportunity for positive psychological adaptation”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Due to the single-country focus, these results might not generalise outside of the UK.

    “Furthermore, due to the single-country focus, these results might not generalise outside of the UK.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Research indicates that climate-related distress is very much a global issue.

    “research indicates that climate-related distress is very much a global issue.23”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [23] Hickman, 2021, Climate anxiety in children and young people and their beliefs about government responses to climate change: a global survey, Lancet Planet Health source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    We aimed to mitigate this bias to some extent by recruiting a diverse sample via a variety of community groups and mental health charities, and complemented this with additional responses from a paid survey panel.

    “We aimed to mitigate this bias to some extent by recruiting a diverse sample via a variety of community groups and mental health charities, and complemented this with additional responses from a paid survey panel.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The finding of higher levels of distress for climate change aligns with previous observations that, contrary to the finite pool of worry hypothesis, concern about the pandemic does not necessarily diminish climate concern.

    “The finding of higher levels of distress for climate change aligns with previous observations that, contrary to the finite pool of worry hypothesis, concern about the pandemic does not necessarily diminish climate concern.9”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [9] Sisco, 2020, A finite pool of worry or a finite pool of attention? Evidence and qualifications, Res Sq source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Young people's emotional responses and their sense of agency with respect to the two crises differed, potentially reflecting realistic considerations of the greatest threat to their future lives (climate change), even while their current lives are directly impacted (the pandemic).

    “Young people's emotional responses and their sense of agency with respect to the two crises differed, potentially reflecting realistic considerations of the greatest threat to their future lives (climate change), even while their current lives are directly impacted (the pandemic).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationown data

    The observation that climate distress and agency were positively related suggests an interesting dynamic between emotional engagement and the potential for positive coping that requires further investigation.

    “The observation that climate distress and agency were positively related suggests an interesting dynamic between emotional engagement and the potential for positive coping that requires further investigation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Compound sources of stress could potentially exacerbate symptoms of poor mental health and wellbeing.

    “Compound sources of stress could potentially exacerbate symptoms of poor mental health and wellbeing.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    This strategy highlights the importance of perceived controllability of a crisis, opportunities to act, and the power of hope in facilitating constructive behaviour and adaptive coping.

    “This strategy highlights the importance of perceived controllability of a crisis, opportunities to act, and the power of hope in facilitating constructive behaviour and adaptive coping.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [49] Ojala, 2021, Anxiety, worry, and grief in a time of environmental and climate crisis: a narrative review, Annu Rev Environ Resour source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A 2020 study in US adults found that climate anxiety was not correlated with behavioural engagement.

    “On the other hand, a 2020 study in US adults found that climate anxiety was not correlated with behavioural engagement.30”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [30] Clayton, 2020, Development and validation of a measure of climate change anxiety, J Environ Psychol source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    A single question was used to probe the extent to which climate or pandemic-related distress interfered with daily life.

    “We do note that a single question was used to probe the extent to which climate or pandemic-related distress interfered with daily life.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Our study delivers a snapshot insight of the situation in one specific country (the UK).

    “First, our study delivers a snapshot insight of the situation in one specific country (the UK).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Strong emotional and psychological responses to climate change or the pandemic can be a rational response to the threats posed.

    “Strong emotional and psychological responses to climate change or the pandemic can be a rational response to the threats posed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Previous work has identified meaning-focused coping as a strategy that protects mental health and wellbeing in children and young people, while encouraging pro-environmental behaviour.

    “Previous work has identified meaning-focused coping—relating to trust in societal actors, acting in line with values, and focusing on hopeful framings—as a strategy that protects mental health and wellbeing in children and young people, while encouraging pro-environmental behaviour.49”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [49] Ojala, 2021, Anxiety, worry, and grief in a time of environmental and climate crisis: a narrative review, Annu Rev Environ Resour source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    It is possible that the greater interest of study respondents in climate change than the COVID-19 pandemic observed in our sample is driven by self-selection.

    “It is possible that the greater interest of study respondents in climate change than the COVID-19 pandemic observed in our sample is driven by self-selection.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Our sample was modest in size, and in part recruited through convenience sampling.

    “Second, our sample was modest in size, and in part recruited through convenience sampling.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Increasing young people's participation and sense of agency might promote mental resilience.

    “Increasing their participation and sense of agency might promote mental resilience.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Due to missing values and the restricted observed range of the interference scores, results from this analysis should be interpreted with caution.

    “Due to missing values (appendix p 7), and the restricted observed range of the interference scores, results from this analysis should be interpreted with caution.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Young people see potential for change but are perhaps lacking the tools to effect it.

    “Young people see potential for change but are perhaps lacking the tools to effect it.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Climate distress was previously found to be strongly and positively correlated with self-efficacy and responsibility-the two metrics we compiled to form our agency scale.

    “Climate distress was previously found to be strongly and positively correlated with self-efficacy and responsibility—the two metrics we compiled to form our agency scale31”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [31] Reser

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Climate change represents a more enduring existential threat.

    “One interpretation is that climate change represents a more enduring existential threat.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    It is likely that psychological responses vary with the severity and duration of the pandemic and government-imposed restrictions.

    “Given that this study was conducted in the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic (between Aug 5 and Oct 26, 2020) and in the context of a rapidly changing policy landscape, it is likely that psychological responses vary with the severity and duration of the pandemic and government-imposed restrictions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
71 of 71

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Summed scale scores can be treated as interval-level data.

    “Summed scale scores were considered as interval-level data and analysed with Student's t tests and ANOVAs.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The adapted pandemic distress scale is equivalent to the climate change distress scale.

    “We used the climate change distress scale, which was developed and validated by Reser and colleagues,31 and adapted this scale to create an equivalent measure of pandemic distress.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The sample of UK young people recruited via panel and community sampling is representative of UK young people for the purpose of generalising the findings.

    “The survey was distributed using Qualtrics between Aug 5 and Oct 26, 2020, using a combination of a survey panel (panel sample) accessed through Prolific and direct approaches to youth groups and schools who shared the survey with young people in their networks (community sample).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Research to date has not yet explored the relationships between specific pandemic-related distress and emotions, a sense of agency to respond to the pandemic, and general mental health.

    “Research to date has not yet explored the relationships between specific pandemic-related distress and emotions, a sense of agency to respond to the pandemic, and general mental health.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    We do not know how similar or different the psychological responses (thoughts and feelings) are across crises and how they contribute to distress.

    “We do not know how similar or different the psychological responses (thoughts and feelings) are across crises and how they contribute to distress.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The link between agency and distress in the context of the pandemic and climate change remains unexplored.

    “To our knowledge, the link between agency and distress in the context of the pandemic and climate change remains unexplored.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The panel and community samples can be combined and treated as a single sample.

    “The survey was distributed using Qualtrics between Aug 5 and Oct 26, 2020, using a combination of a survey panel (panel sample) accessed through Prolific and direct approaches to youth groups and schools who shared the survey with young people in their networks (community sample).”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The ANOVA is robust against violations of normality and uneven sample sizes.

    “The ANOVA was assumed to be robust against violations of normality and uneven sample sizes (which were n=161, n=171, n=110, n=79, for no, low, moderate, and severe anxiety symptoms, respectively).”
8 of 8

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Count and percentage for reduced climate concern disagree

    Major

    Of the 530 retained respondents, 260 would be 49%, not 36%. The other two concern categories contain 123 and 217 respondents, leaving 190-not 260-if the categories account for all 530 respondents.

    Reported 36 · recomputed 49.056604

  • Direction of the control-agency comparison reverses

    Minor

    The results say respondents perceived more control over the pandemic than over climate change, whereas the discussion lists the ability to control the crisis as an agency dimension higher for climate change.

2 of 2

Cites

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Related

Authors
Lawrance, E. L., Jennings, N., Kioupi, V., Thompson, R., Diffey, J., & Vercammen, A.
Affiliations
  • Imperial College London (GB)
  • The University of Queensland (AU)
Corresponding author
Lawrance, Emma L
ORCID
Venue
The Lancet Planetary Health
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2022-09
Volume
6
Issue
9
Pages
e726-e738
ISSN
2542-5196 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/s2542-5196(22)00172-3
PMC
PMC9451498
OpenAlex
W4295457303
Cited by
123
References
41
Citations by year
2026: 29 · 2025: 36 · 2024: 29 · 2023: 25 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 1
FWCI
9.36
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • The Lancet Planetary Health (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • SSRN Electronic Journal (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • White Rose Research Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York) (acceptedVersion)
Funders
Imperial College London
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Climate Change Communication and Perception
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Climate Change and Health Impacts
Keywords
climate change, COVID-19 pandemic, youth, mental health, psychological distress, sense of agency, anxiety, depression, stress, loneliness, grief, quality of life, youth well-being, climate anxiety, 2022 Russia-Ukraine war, 2022 floods
MeSH terms
COVID-19, Adolescent, Female, United Kingdom, Humans, Male, Mental Health, Quality of Life, Surveys and Questionnaires, Young Adult, Climate Change, Pandemics

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-11-05.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-11-05.

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