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Cited by 762Archaeological Research and ProtectionGeographic Information Systems StudiesSpatial and Panel Data Analysis

The DOI matches its Crossref record, with a small difference in title or year; 1 of the 1 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 13 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.

Geographical Information Systems in Archaeology

Open access
Conolly, James, Lake, Mark·2006·Cambridge University Press eBooks
DOI 10.1017/cbo9780511807459
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Abstract

Geographical Information Systems has moved from the domain of the computer specialist into the wider archaeological community, providing it with an exciting new research method. This clearly written but rigorous book provides a comprehensive guide to that use. Topics covered include: the theoretical context and the basics of GIS; data acquisition including database design; interpolation of elevation models; exploratory data analysis including spatial queries; statistical spatial analysis; map algebra; spatial operations including the calculation of slope and aspect, filtering and erosion modeling; methods for analysing regions; visibility analysis; network analysis including hydrological modeling; the production of high quality output for paper and electronic publication; and the use and production of metadata. Offering an extensive range of archaeological examples, it is an invaluable source of practical information for all archaeologists, whether engaged in cultural resource management or academic research. This is essential reading for both the novice and the advanced user.

Overview

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This is the introductory chapter of a manual on GIS in archaeology, arguing that GIS is one powerful tool among many and that its appropriate use requires awareness of the theoretical concepts of space embedded in it. It reviews the philosophical debate over space and the parallel debate over whether GIS is a "tool" or a "science," then traces how archaeological GIS has moved from common-sense narrative through scientific explanation toward post-processual concerns.

Key findings

  • Two philosophical concepts of space are argued to map onto GIS data models: the absolute ("container") concept fits the continuous field model and raster DEMs, while the relative concept has "some affinity" with the entity model and vector maps — though the authors caution that raster and vector are data structures, not data models, and either can represent the other.
  • Spatial languages (geometries) differ in specificity: topology cannot measure distance or area and suits relative space and stratigraphic relations (e.g. the Harris matrix), whereas Euclidean geometry is metric and supports more meaningful questions, such as measuring areas covered by deposits.
  • The chapter traces archaeological GIS through three modes: "common-sense" narrative (e.g. Gaffney and Stančič 1991, 1992, who showed Roman towers on Hvar are intervisible but did not test whether this arose by chance), scientific explanation (Kvamme 1993; van Leusen 1993; Wheatley 1995, 1996 using a one-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test; Fisher et al. 1997 on control samples and causality), and post-processual critique.
  • Three strands of post-processual thought are reviewed: how we learn about the past (phenomenology; the charge that GIS perpetuates Haraway's "God trick"), what we study (meaning and symbolism versus environmental determinism), and the "otherness" of the past (Thomas 2004 questioning how far a microprocessor can facilitate experiential archaeology).

Methods

  • This is a theoretical and introductory review chapter, not an empirical study; it presents no dataset, sample, or statistical analysis of its own.
  • It synthesises philosophical literature on space (Harvey, Popper, Kant, Newton), GIS data-model literature (Burrough and McDonnell 1998; Couclelis 1992; Worboys 1995), and a body of archaeological GIS case studies to frame the book's practical chapters.
  • The chapter also outlines the book's structure, mapping chapters to tasks such as data acquisition (Chapters 4–5), surface generation (Chapter 6), analysis (Chapters 7–11), presentation (Chapter 12), and metadata maintenance (Chapter 13).

Limitations

  • Stated: the authors concede that the three strands of post-processual thought they use to organise the discussion "are not so readily separable" in reality, and that they cannot provide instructions for every GIS software package, offering only some package-specific examples.
  • Stated: they note that the earliest research-orientated archaeological GIS studies are treated only briefly and that a fuller treatment of visibility studies appears elsewhere (Lake and Woodman 2003).
  • Evident from the text: as an introductory chapter it advances no testable claims or original data, so its arguments rest on selective citation of prior work rather than systematic review; the "tool versus science" debate is summarised rather than resolved.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1017/cbo9780511807459

Cites

1 of 1 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Verification

Claims the paper makes

0 of 13 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Premisecitation
    § Scientific explanation

    The tendency of processual archaeology to focus most attention on the ecological and economic dimensions of human existence has been replaced by an emphasis on meaning and symbolism.

    “The tendency of processual archaeology to focus most attention on the ecological and economic dimensions of human existence has been replaced by an emphasis on meaning and symbolism.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Hodder 1990

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Thomas 1991b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Interpretationreasoning
    § Scientific explanation

    From the early-mid 1990s there was a clear concern with increasing inferential rigour in archaeological GIS.

    “From then on there was a clear concern with increasing inferential rigour.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Premisereasoning
    § Recording the evidence

    A programme of field survey by surface collection is more likely to be predicated on the absolute concept of space and to emphasise relationships that require Euclidean geometry.

    “In contrast, a programme of field survey by surface collection is more likely to be predicated on the absolute concept of space and to emphasise relationships that require Euclidean geometry.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Premisecitation
    § 'Common-sense' narrative

    The earliest research-orientated archaeological GIS studies generally mirrored the 'common-sense' approach of 'traditional' archaeology.

    “Curiously, the earliest research-orientated archaeological GIS studies generally mirrored the 'common-sense' approach of 'traditional' archaeology (Aldenderfer 1996)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Aldenderfer 1996

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Premisereasoning
    § 'Common-sense' narrative

    Gaffney and Stančič did not attempt to support their suggestion that the location of Roman towers on Hvar was determined by intervisibility by demonstrating that intervisibility is unlikely to have occurred by chance alone and was not a byproduct of some other favourable attribute.

    “the authors did not attempt to support it by, for example, demonstrating that intervisibility is unlikely to have occurred by chance alone and was not a byproduct of some other favourable attribute.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • It may state two separate claims as one. 9
  • Probably not a substantial claim. 21

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisenone given
    § Recording the evidence

    The single context recording system used on many deeply stratified urban excavations is essentially predicated on the relative concept of space and emphasises topological relations.

    “For instance, the single context recording system used on many deeply stratified urban excavations is essentially predicated on the relative concept of space and emphasises topological relations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation
    § Learning about the past

    There has been much debate in geography about whether GIS constitutes a 'tool' or a 'science'.

    “there has been much debate in geography about whether GIS constitutes a 'tool' or a 'science' (Wright et al. 1997)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wright et al. 1997

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisenone given
    § Scientific explanation

    The location descriptor is what sets GIS apart from other database systems.

    “As will become clear in Chapter 2, the location descriptor is what sets GIS apart from other database systems.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisereasoning
    § Abstract

    Metadata are of vital importance, as the investment in creating a GIS will soon be wasted without them.

    “metadata are of vital importance, as the investment in creating a GIS will soon be wasted without them.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given
    § 1.2.2 Space in archaeological GIS

    It matters for archaeological purposes that there are different philosophies of space and that these are at least partially mirrored in the different models of space used in GIS, both for recording archaeological evidence and for analysing it.

    “In our view it does, both for the use of GIS to record archaeological evidence and for its subsequent use to analyse that evidence in the hope of learning about the past.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation
    § Scientific explanation

    Fisher et al. (1997) emphasised that the mere existence of an association between human activity and one or more environmental variables does not in itself provide adequate evidence of a causal relationship.

    “His work was subsequently further refined by Fisher et al. (1997), who emphasised that the mere existence of an association between human activity and one or more environmental variables does not in itself provide adequate evidence of a causal relationship.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fisher et al. 1997

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisereasoning
    § How can we describe space?

    One of the most notable features of topological geometries is that they do not allow one to measure distance or area.

    “Indeed, one of the most notable features of topological geometries is that they do not allow one to measure distance or area.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationnone given
    § Space in GIS

    The two principal data models used in GIS to describe how these should be linked to some extent mirror the two philosophical concepts of space.

    “The two principal data models used in GIS to describe how these should be linked to some extent mirror the two philosophical concepts of space.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationnone given
    § Scientific explanation

    Combining GIS with virtual reality represents a significant break with positivist models of inference, eschewing expert explanation based on the results of statistical tests in favour of multiple understandings, each potentially unique to a particular participant.

    “This approach represents a significant break with positivist models of inference, eschewing expert explanation based on the results of statistical tests in favour of multiple understandings, each potentially unique to a particular participant.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Recording the evidence

    The requirements of the two different archaeological problems just outlined will best be met using different models of space: the entity model in the first case and the relative model in the second, which in turn suggests the creation of vector and raster maps, respectively.

    “The requirements of the two different archaeological problems just outlined will best be met using different models of space: the entity model in the first case and the relative model in the second, which in turn suggests the creation of vector and raster maps, respectively”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Premisenone given
    § What is space?

    Any kind of spatial analysis, whether formal or informal, is ultimately predicated on a concept of space.

    “Any kind of spatial analysis, whether formal or informal, is ultimately predicated on a concept of space.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation
    § Scientific explanation

    Geographical information systems require two descriptors to describe the real world: attribute records what is present while location records where it is.

    “Geographical information systems require two descriptors to describe the real world: attribute records what is present while location records where it is (Worboys 1995).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Worboys 1995

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Space in GIS

    The continuous field model organises information by a set of predetermined locations in space and can be considered to fit quite closely with the philosophical absolute concept of space.

    “Since the continuous field model organises information by a set of predetermined locations in space it can be considered to fit quite closely with the philosophical absolute concept of space.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation
    § What is space?

    Western thought has been dominated by two main philosophical ideas about the nature of space, one of which views it as a container and the other as a relation between things.

    “Western thought has been dominated by two main philosophical ideas about the nature of space, one of which views it as a container and the other as a relation between things.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Harvey 1969

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Scientific explanation

    The second critique initially appears less tractable, as it questions the very use of computer methods.

    “In contrast, the second critique initially appears less tractable, as it questions the very use of computer methods.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisereasoning
    § How can we describe space?

    Topology distinguishes spatial objects that should be considered different on account of the way in which they relate to their neighbours and, for that reason, it has a close affinity with the relative model of space.

    “Topology distinguishes spatial objects that should be considered different on account of the way in which they relate to their neighbours and, for that reason, it has a close affinity with the relative model of space.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation
    § Scientific explanation

    Artificial intelligence researchers are actively moving beyond traditional computational theory of mind and tackling issues such as the social construction of emotions and the idea that cognition is not somehow separate from engagement with the world.

    “However, artificial intelligence researchers, including many specialists in sociological simulation, are actively moving beyond traditional computational theory of mind and tackling issues such as the social construction of emotions (Cañamero and de Velde 2000) and the idea that cognition is not somehow separate from engagement with the world (Maris and te Boekhorst 1996).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Cañamero and de Velde 2000

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Maris and te Boekhorst 1996

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation
    § Scientific explanation

    The critique of computational theory of mind argues that traditional artificial intelligence and computational methods simply do not capture the real nature of thinking and knowledge.

    “At the root of his doubt is the well-known critique of computational theory of mind (Dreyfus 1972; Searle 1992), which argues that traditional artificial intelligence and computational methods simply do not capture the real nature of thinking and knowledge.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Dreyfus 1972

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Searle 1992

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisereasoning
    § Scientific explanation

    Much archaeological research conducted since the 1970s has been conducted in processual vein, that is, broadly predicated on the assumption that the methods of the natural sciences can be used to explain the subject matter of the social sciences.

    “much archaeological research conducted since the 1970s has been conducted in processual vein, that is, broadly predicated on the assumption that the methods of the natural sciences can be used to explain the subject matter of the social sciences.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Premisenone given
    § How can we describe space?

    Euclidean geometry has long been associated with the absolute concept of space.

    “Euclidean geometry has long been associated with the absolute concept of space.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Space in GIS

    The entity model has some affinity to the philosophical relative concept of space, at least to the extent that it organises information by entity rather than by a set of predetermined locations in space.

    “The entity model has some affinity to the philosophical relative concept of space, at least to the extent that it organises information by entity rather than by a set of predetermined locations in space.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationcitation
    § Scientific explanation

    Archaeological users of GIS have made suggestions that may go some way to addressing the first of these critiques.

    “Archaeological users of GIS have made suggestions that may go some way to addressing the first of these critiques.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
22 of 22

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    GIS has matured to the point where non-specialists can use relatively user-friendly software to solve real archaeological problems.

    “The study of geographical information systems (GIS) has now matured to the point where non-specialists can take advantage of relatively user-friendly software to help them solve real archaeological problems.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The application of methods like creating an elevation model from widely spaced contour lines is likely to produce highly unsatisfactory results and interpretative errors.

    “none that we know of would warn that the application of this method to widely spaced contours is likely to produce highly unsatisfactory results that could lead to a host of interpretative errors further down the line.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Researchers who become overdependent on the data management abilities of GIS may shy away from tackling more analytical questions.

    “there is a risk that researchers who become overdependent on the data management abilities of GIS may shy away from tackling more analytical questions simply because it is not immediately obvious which buttons to push.”
3 of 3

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • The R package leastcostpath can incorporate both isotropic and anisotropic costs into LCP analysis.

    “By calculating and storing conductivity from each raster cell to all other adjacent raster cells based on a usersupplied function, both isotropic (conductivity neither benefited nor hindered by direction) and anisotropic costs (conductivity is direction-dependent) can be incorporated into the LCP analysis (Conolly & Lake, 2006, pp. 217-221;Wheatley & Gillings, 2002, pp. 137-140).”

    From Probabilistic modelling for incorporating uncertainty in least cost path results: a postdictive roman road case study (2021) · cites this paper as Conolly & Lake, 2006

    The Scientific explanation passage mentions cost-surfaces, and the introductory passage points to a chapter on routes, but neither describes isotropic or anisotropic costs. Searches of our copy for those terms, adjacent-cell conductivity, and the leastcostpath R package found no passage addressing the attributed capability. (LLM, conf=0.75)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Buffers for linear features like water courses were computed before converting them to raster format to avoid corner-connected cells with high costs surrounded by cells of low friction.

    “To avoid corner-connected cells with high costs surrounded by cells of low friction [Conolly and Lake 2006: 216], buffers for linear features like the water courses were computed before converting them to raster format [Herzog 2013b].”

    From Issues in replication and stability of least-cost path calculations (2022) · cites this paper as Conolly and Lake 2006: 216

    The citation to Conolly and Lake is attached to the concern about corner-connected high-cost cells; the buffer procedure is cited to Herzog. The available passages in “Space in GIS” discuss raster cells, and “Scientific explanation” mentions cost surfaces, but neither addresses that specific cell-connectivity problem. Searches for corner-connected cells, diagonal adjacency, and friction costs did not retrieve the cited page 216. (LLM, conf=0.68)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Field survey is assigned both an absolute and a relative model of space

    Minor

    The field-survey example is described as predicated on the absolute concept of space, but the following paragraph assigns the second example-the field survey-to the relative model.

1 of 1

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Metadata

Authors
Conolly, J., & Lake, M.
Affiliations
  • Trent University (CA)
  • University College London (GB)
Venue
Cambridge University Press eBooks
Publisher
Cambridge University Press
Published
2006-05-04
DOI
10.1017/cbo9780511807459
OpenAlex
W297006095
Cited by
761
References
1
Citations by year
2026: 35 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 28 · 2023: 43 · 2022: 34 · 2021: 59 · 2020: 43 · 2019: 39 · 2018: 61 · 2017: 74 · 2016: 57 · 2015: 56 · 2014: 40 · 2013: 43 · 2012: 35
FWCI
14.59
Type
book
Language
en
Open access
Licence
www.cambridge.org/core/terms (unspecified, 2224 d)
Locations
  • Cambridge University Press eBooks (publishedVersion)
  • UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
  • Andalas University Repository (Andalas University) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Archeology › Archaeological Research and Protection
  • Social Sciences › Geography, Planning and Development › Geographic Information Systems Studies
  • Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Spatial and Panel Data Analysis
Keywords
geographic information systems, archaeological GIS, spatial analysis, spatial queries, digital elevation model, map algebra, visibility analysis, network analysis, hydrological modeling, erosion modeling, metadata, cultural resource management, database design

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