Childhood predictors differentiate life-course persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial pathways among males and females

“…between physical maturity and immature social status; children contend with this ‘‘maturity gap’’ by engaging in rebellious activities designed to demonstrate independence or flaunt adult-enforced rules (Moffit, 1993; Moffitt & Caspi, 2001; Moffitt, Caspi, Dickson, Silva, & Stanton, 1996).”

“These individuals are most troublesome as they are more likely to continue their criminal behavior into adulthood, commit more severe and violent crimes, and experience a variety of poor personal outcomes (Moffitt and Caspi 2001; Stouthamer-Loeber and Loeber 2002).”

“These results stand in sharp contrast to existing theories of the development of aggression which largely posit that, as a group, girls do not exhibit significant behavioral problems prior to adolescence (e.g.,Keenan & Shaw, 1997; Moffitt & Caspi, 2001; Silverthorn & Frick, 1999).”

“large part of all violent crimes [3, 4, 33] and the high impact of a very small group of especially violent individuals indicated by the high reconviction rates among former prison detainees [8].”

“Taken together, the findings are consistent with a gender-informed model of development and developmental psychopathology (Crick & Zahn-Waxler, 2003; Moffit & Caspi, 2001; Silverthorn & Frick, 1999; Zahn-Waxler et al., 2006) and suggest that we must consider specific maltreatment experiences,…”

“The developmental trajectories of the former group, we hypothesize, are similar to those described for life course–persistent offenders (Moffitt & Caspi, 2001) up until the onset of the schizophrenia.”

“This limitation is likely due to the uneven sex distribution of severe CD, in which boys outnumber girls in ratios approaching 10:1.(7) Such large disparities in prevalence may suggest different etiological mechanisms of externalizing behavior for girls versus boys, a conjecture that is supported by recent behavioral…”

“Specifically, youths in the childhood-onset group show more severe CP in childhood and adolescence and are more likely to continue to show antisocial and criminal behavior into adulthood (Frick & Loney, 1999; Moffitt & Caspi, 2001).”

“It draws extensively on developmental knowledge of risk factors for early starter conduct problems, including continuities between toddler disruptive behavior and later conduct problems (Gardner et al., 1999; Moffitt & Caspi, 2001; Shaw et al., 2000, 2003).”

“…pathway that begins with hyperactivity/impulsivity in toddlerhood, followed by ODD in early childhood, early-onset CD in elementary school, substance use disorders (SUDs) in adolescence, and antisocial personality in adulthood (see Loeber & Hay, 1997; Lynam, 1996, 1998; Moffitt & Caspi, 2001).”

“... vary slightly by sample, one early-starter group tends to display chronic problems, typically beginning prior to first grade [similar to Moffitt’s (2006) ‘‘life-course persistent’’ group], and a second group [similar to the Loeber and Stouthamer-Loeber’s (1998) ‘‘childhood onset’’ subtype] shows a pattern of aggre…”

“The literature on aggression similarly has focused on boys and men, although expanded efforts toward understanding aggression in girls and women are increasingly evident (e.g., Björkqvist & Niemelä, 1992; Moffitt & Caspi, 2001).”

“Empirical studies reported that poor language skills were linked to externalizing behavior development and later antisocial outcomes (Hill, 2002; Moffitt & Caspi, 2001; Nigg & Huang-Pollock, 2003; Séguin, Parent, Tremblay, & Zelazo, 2009).”

“In other research, measures of memory [46] and executive function [4,11,72] have been identified as correlates or predictors of delinquency, as have attention deficits [50], hyperactivity when combined with disruptive behaviors [51], impulsivity [47], aggression [22,44,45,58,59], and intelligence [47].”

“Comparisons of children drawn from the Dunedin birth cohort study who have features consistent with ADHD/ODD/CD, ADHD-only, ODD/CD-only, and no disorder suggest that children with ADHD/ODD/CD have neurological deficits that other children do not (Moffitt & Henry, 1989), have more severe conduct problems (Moffitt, 1990…”

“To be effective, research must accu- rately distinguish between impulsive juvenile offenders whose antisocial behavior is primarily limited to adolescence (Moffitt & Caspi, 2001) versus those who may evolve into chronic violent offenders (Lynam, 1997).”

“Life course persistent or aggressive antisocial behavior associated with neuro developmental impairment, show a male preponderance, whereas females more often exhibit adolescentlimited or non-aggressive antisocial behavior [Moffitt, 1993; Moffitt and Caspi, 2001; Moffitt et al., 2001].”

“At a time when dating begins, emphasis is placed on the importance of peer relationships, and social reputation plays firmly into identity development (Rubin et al. 2006), it is essential to intervene in order to prevent the barrage of negative outcomes associated with social failure in adolescence (e.g., substance ab…”

“For youth in the achiever class, truancy may be viewed as a rebellious activity that youth engage in to exert their autonomy (Moffitt 1993; Moffitt and Caspi 2001) rather than a strong indicator of other problematic behaviors.”

“Thus, relatively high stability is found for both internalizing and externalizing behavior problems (Achenbach, Howell, McConaughy, & Stanger, 1995; Hofstra, vam der Ende, & Verhulst, 2002; Kim-Cohen et al., 2003; Masten et al., 2005; Mesman & Koot, 2001; Moffitt & Caspi, 2001).”

“Relationships may be particularly important in childhood, when identity is developing and lifetime trajectories of emotional and behavioral problems are taking shape.(3,4) To the extent that positive social relationships are rewarding and desirable, the absence or loss of such relationships may be detrimental to indiv…”

“For example, adolescent conduct disorder might arise from two pathways, one related to early brain-based risk and the other related to contextual influences (Moffitt & Caspi 2001).”

“Specifically, boys tend to exhibit more delinquent behavior than girls during early adolescence (Moffitt & Caspi, 2001), with continuing gender differences in later adolescence often reported (Ritakallio, Kaltiala-Heino, Kivivuori, & Rimpelä, 2005; Robins & Price, 1991), with some exceptions (for…”

“3. Sex differences in developmental trajectories to adolescent delinquency also have been hypothesized: 3a. Moffitt et al. (2001) and Moffitt & Caspi (2001) hypothesized that both females and males exhibit an early-onset”

“Several researchers have documented that compared with late starters, who begin delinquent activity in middle to late adolescence, early starters show a more persistent and chronic trajectory of antisocial behavior extending from middle childhood to adulthood (Moffitt 1993, Moffitt & Caspi 2001).”

“Externalizing behavior has been found to show considerable longitudinal stability throughout the developmental years [4, 7, 11, 14, 17, 31, 39, 43].”

“59:1 is not reflective of the ratio previously reported for the childonset developmental pathway of antisocial behaviour (10:1; Moffitt and Caspi 2001), and instead appears almost identical to the adolescent-onset pathway (1.5:1; Moffitt and Caspi 2001).”

“The roots of conduct problems are established during early childhood for a substantial portion of antisocial youths (Campbell, 1995; Moffitt & Caspi, 2001).”

“DISRUPTIVE AND AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR at an early age is one of the most important risk factors for deviant development later in life, such as school dropout, delinquency, and substance abuse (Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group, 1999; Kazdin, 1998; Moffit & Caspi, 2001).”

“criminal behavior (Johansson and Kempf-Leonard 2009; Moffitt and Caspi 2001), desistance from crime (Rumgay 2004), offender recidivism (Reisig et al.”

“Consistent with previous studies of childhood-onset delinquency (Moffitt & Caspi, 2001), males were more likely than females to have engaged in risk behavior.”

“It is well known that behavioral problems in early childhood predict later delinquency and disorder (e.g., Moffitt & Caspi, 2001).”

“• The Dunedin, New Zealand birth cohort (Bardone, Moffitt, Caspi, Dickson, & Silva, 1996; Moffitt, Caspi, Rutter, & Silva, 2001; Moffitt & Caspi, 2001) followed 630 girls and 635 boys born in 1977 to age 32.”

“…offenders account for the majority of serious and violent juvenile crimes (Howell and Bilchick 1995), and are more likely to persist in criminal activity into adulthood (Hamparian, Schuster, Davis, and White 1985; Moffitt 1993; Moffitt and Caspi 2001; Moffitt, Caspi, Harrington, and Milne 2002).”

“As a result, some studies report a ‘child onset’ type, an ‘adolescent onset’ type [4, 19 , 26], or a ‘life-course persistent’ and ‘adolescence-limited’ developmental trajectories of externalizing behavior.”

“Screening is based on developmental knowledge of risk factors for early-starter conduct problems and their continuities with later risk behaviors (Moffitt & Caspi, 2001; Shaw, Bell, & Gilliom, 2000; Shaw, Gilliom, Ingoldsby, & Nagin, 2003).”

“Homotypic continuity was found for both specific problem behaviors and for DSM-IV diagnoses including antisocial behavior, depression and anxiety (7, 8, 10, 11), Heterotypic continuity was found between childhood depression and adult anxiety (7, 8, 11) and between childhood conduct problems and later anxiety and schiz…”

“Despite the significance of research findings and theoretical support, rarely do children who experience violence at home immediately become aggressive individuals (Grogan-Kaylor and Otis 2003; Moffitt and Caspi 2001; Widom 1989).”

“…pathologies, which frequently show marked sex differences in risk, phenotypic expression, and treatment response (Szatmari et al. 1989; Moffitt 1990; Gur et al. 1996; Hafner et al. 1998; Chakrabarti and Fombonne 2001; Moffitt and Caspi 2001; Baird et al. 2006; Kulkarni et al. 2008).”

“Childhood-onset disruptive behavior disorderswattention-deficityhyperactivity disorder (ADyHD), oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), and conduct disorder(CD)x carry a high risk of persisting into adulthood as antisocial behaviors(Lahey and Loeber, 1997; Moffitt and Caspi, 2002).”

“…et al. 2000; Chakrabarti and Fombonne 2001), attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; Szatmari et al. 1989; Moffitt 1990), early onset persistent antisocial behavior (Moffitt and Caspi 2001), Tourette’s syndrome (Wang and Kuo 2003), and early onset schizophrenia (Remschmidt et al. 1994).”

“These findings are consistent with those of Moffitt and Caspi (2001) who reported that childhood-onset delinquency – though not adolescent-onset delinquency – was associated with inadequate parenting, neurocognitive problems, and temperament and behavior problems during childhood.”

“Keywords: mental health; gender; juvenile justice; adolescence Overall, boys outnumber girls in rates of physical aggression, violence, and criminalbehavior during adolescence (Crick & Zahn-Waxler, 2003; Moffitt & Caspi, 2001; Moffitt, Caspi, Rutter, & Silva, 2001).”

“…brain structure and functions (e.g., increased risk-taking and sensation seeking, Giedd, 2008; Steinberg, 2007), negative peer group effects, or the so-called maturity gap in adolescence, which motivates antisocial behavior by a misfit between biological and social maturity (Moffitt & Caspi, 2001).”

“Keywords Parenting interventions Child conduct problems Moderators Differential effects Introduction A wealth of longitudinal research on the emergence of conduct problems (CP) has shown that young children who demonstrate elevated levels of disruptive behavior in early childhood are at risk for persisting in problema…”

“Some youth are characterized by aggressiveness as early as childhood that persists into adolescence, while other youth initiate aggressive behaviors in adolescence (Moffitt and Caspi 2001; Patterson and Yoerger 2002).”

“Last, numerous studies confirm that distinct conduct problem trajectories are associated with unique predictors, correlates, and outcomes [18, 19, 55, 67, 80, 84].”

“The study of these ‘‘career criminals’’ provided the foundation for later researchers to begin building a science that differentiated between life-course persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial subtypes [Moffitt, 1993; Moffitt and Caspi, 2001].”

“As has been observed in the context of conduct disorder and subsequent ASPD, not all children demonstrating conduct problems will manifest ASPD in adulthood (Moffitt & Caspi, 2001).”

“This focus may explain the strong association of male gender with risk taking in our sample, given that male adolescents are especially likely to engage in these forms of risk behavior (Moffitt & Caspi, 2001; Young et al., 2002).”

“…(d) higher levels of comorbid conditions; and (e) greater impairment in occupational and interpersonal functioning across developmental periods (Biederman et al. 2008; Colman et al. 2009; Connor et al. 2007; Frick and Viding 2009; Moffitt 1993; Moffitt and Caspi 2001; Moffitt et al. 2002).”

“Most notably, a child-onset, life-course-persistent type and an adolescent-limited type have been suggested [31] and confirmed as a valid taxonomy of antisocial behaviour in youth [32, 36].”

“…(the adolescent-onset trajectory), and those who only engage in antisocial behavior in childhood (the childhood-limited trajectory) (Moffitt, 1993; Moffitt & Caspi, 2001; Moffitt, Caspi, Dickman, Silva, & Stanton, 1996; Moffitt, Caspi, Harrington, & Milne, 2002; Odgers et al., 2008; Wiesner &…”

“Moffitt and colleagues (Moffitt & Caspi, 2001; Moffitt, Caspi, Rutter, & Silva, 2001) argue that the causes of lifecourse persistent antisocial behavior in females and males are essentially the same.”

“…children are at heightened risk for a wide range of maladaptive outcomes at school, including academic difficulties, peer rejection, and other externalizing problems (Campbell, Spieker, Burchinal, & Poe, 2006; Crick et al., 2006; Moffitt & Caspi, 2001; Ostrov, Woods, Jansen, Casas, & Crick, 2004).”

“…exclusive of other psychiatric conditions, and in prospective longitudinal studies (Cauffman, Steinberg, and Piquero 2005; Cherkovich and Tatoyan 1973; Eisermann 1992; Farrington 1997; Jennings, Piquero, and Farrington 2013; Lorber 2004; Moffitt et al. 2001; Ortiz and Raine 2004; Raine 2002).”

“…et al., 1996, 2002), evidence from one small study suggests that conduct problems among most girls may stem from constitutionally based characteristics such as poor impulse control and callousness (Silverthorn, Frick, & Reynolds, 2001; though see Moffitt & Caspi, 2001, for a competing perspective).”

“dysthymia; (3) substance use disorders, including al-”