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Childhood predictors differentiate life-course persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial pathways among males and females
Abstract
This article reports a comparison on childhood risk factors of males and females exhibiting childhood-onset and adolescent-onset antisocial behavior, using data from the Dunedin longitudinal study. Childhood-onset delinquents had childhoods of inadequate parenting, neurocognitive problems, and temperament and behavior problems, whereas adolescent-onset delinquents did not have these pathological backgrounds. Sex comparisons showed a male-to-female ratio of 10:1 for childhood-onset delinquency but a sex ratio of only 1.5:1 for adolescence-onset delinquency. Showing the same pattern as males, childhood-onset females had high-risk backgrounds but adolescent-onset females did not. These findings are consistent with core predictions from the taxonomic theory of life-course persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial behavior.
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“Some aggressive behaviors in childhood predict aggression in later life; others are temporary and disappear at later ages, such as temper tantrums in toddlers [61] and adolescence-limited antisocial behavior [62].”
From An integrated analysis of genes and functional pathways for aggression in human and rodent models (2019) · cites this paper as [62]
In the citing paper
“Some aggressive behaviors in childhood predict aggression in later life; others are temporary and disappear at later ages, such as temper tantrums in toddlers [61] and adolescence-limited antisocial behavior [62].”
From An integrated analysis of genes and functional pathways for aggression in human and rodent models (2019) · cites this paper as [62]
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GELHORN, H., STALLINGS, M., YOUNG, S., CORLEY, R., RHEE, S. H., CHRISTIAN, H., & HEWITT, J. (2006) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000198596.76443.b0 · Cited by 40
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Structural and functional MRI‐ findings in children and adolescents with antisocial behavior
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Protective Factors for Antisocial Behavior in Youth: What is the Meta-Analytic Evidence?
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BackgroundGonzales, N. A., Germán, M., & Fabrett, F. C. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-0424-8_15 · Cited by 48
Empirically Based Strategies for Preventing Juvenile Delinquency
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Moretti, M. M., Catchpole, R. E. H., & Odgers, C. L. (2005) · PubMed Central · Cited by 38
de Haan, A. D., Prinzie, P., & Deković, M. (2012) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579411000848 · Cited by 38
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BackgroundThe role of social‐cognitive abilities in preschoolers' aggressive behaviour
Werner, R. S., Cassidy, K. W., & Juliano, M. (2006) · British Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1348/026151005x78799 · Cited by 40
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“These factors heighten vulnerability to the criminogenic aspects of the social environment such as increased levels of parental mental health problems, harsh and inconsistent discipline, and changes in primary caretaker (Moffitt & Caspi, 2001).”
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“This rising interest in early education has primarily come from increased awareness that many of children’s inadequate behavioural patterns acquired at this age tend to become more stable in time (Cole, Teti, & Zahn‐Waxler, 2003 ; Moffitt & Caspi, 2001 ).”
BackgroundSnyder, J. J., Schrepferman, L., Bullard, L., McEachern, A. D., & Patterson, G. R. (2012) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579412000570 · Cited by 38
“Evidence indicates that individuals on these two trajectories can be differentiated by a variety of risk factors (Moffitt & Caspi, 2001).”
BackgroundResultMurray, J., Hallal, P. C., Mielke, G. I., Raine, A., Wehrmeister, F. C., Anselmi, L., & Barros, F. C. (2016) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyv340 · Cited by 37
“A second possible explanation is that female criminal behaviour is less persistent than male criminal behaviour, and low resting heart rate is more strongly related to persistent antisocial behaviour.(36) A third possibility is that, because females have lower crime rates than males, the null findings for females migh…”
BackgroundCurto, B. M., Paula, C. S., do Nascimento, R., Murray, J., & Bordin, I. A. (2010) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-010-0291-2 · Cited by 39
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Early impacts of moving from poor to middle-class neighborhoods on low-income youth
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Violence as a Public Health Risk
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“Longitudinal evidence suggests that boys with high levels of physical aggression in childhood, especially in combination with hyperactivity and oppositional behavior, are among the most prone to follow a path of chronic violence into adulthood.(7,51,55,59,60) Boys with these characteristics often have trouble in socia…”
BackgroundDonker, A. G., SMEENK, W. H., van der Laan, P. H., & Verhulst, F. C. (2003) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2003.tb00998.x · Cited by 38
Sidora‐Arcoleo, K., Anson, E. A., Lorber, M. F., Cole, R., Olds, D. L., & Kitzman, H. J. (2009) · Journal of Pediatric Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.pedn.2008.07.011 · Cited by 39
Catching the Really Bad Guys: An Assessment of the Efficacy of the U.S. Criminal Justice System
Barnes, J. C. (2014) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2014.04.002 · Cited by 37
Child and adolescent psychopathy: Assessment issues and treatment needs
da Silva, D. R., Rijo, D., & Salekin, R. T. (2012) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.avb.2012.10.003 · Cited by 43
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“…studies provide evidence that most men who are psychopathic as adults had psychopathic symptoms by ages 6 to 10 (Loeber, Farrington, & Petechuk, 2003), at least 50% of children with pervasive and serious antisocial traits do not develop into antisocial adolescents or adults (Moffitt & Caspi, 2001).”
BackgroundValidation of the Pediatric Symptom Checklist in HIV-infected Batswana
Lowenthal, E. D., Lawler, K. A., Harari, N., Moamogwe, L., Masunge, J., Masedi, M., Matome, B., Seloilwe, E., Jellinek, M. S., Murphy, M., et al. (2011) · Journal of Child and Adolescent Mental Health · doi:10.2989/17280583.2011.594245 · Cited by 38
“Numerous studies have demonstrated that failure to recognize and treat psychosocial problems can lead to more severe impairment with increased utilisation of health care services and increased cost to society (Koot and Verhulst 1992, Visser et al. 1999, Moffitt and Caspi 2001).”
Cruzeiro, A. L. S., da Silva, R. A., Horta, B. L., Souza, L. D. D. M., Faria, A. D., Pinheiro, R. T., Silveira, I. D. O., & Ferreira, C. D. (2008) · Cadernos de Saúde Pública · doi:10.1590/s0102-311x2008000900007 · Cited by 37
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“Yet, several researchers have concluded that the processes underlying the development of antisocial behavior and the trajectory that development follows are quite similar for boys and girls (Cote, Zoccolillo, Tremblay, Nagin, & Vitaro, 2001; Fagot & Leve, 1998; Moffitt & Caspi, 2001 ).”
BackgroundA unified crime theory: The evolutionary taxonomy
Boutwell, B. B., Barnes, J. C., Beaver, K. M., Haynes, R. D., Nedelec, J. L., & Gibson, C. L. (2015) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.avb.2015.09.003 · Cited by 36
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Physiological Arousal and Its Dysregulation in Child Maladjustment
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“During childhood, individuals in this subgroup show high levels of aggression and have multiple biological and social risk factors (Moffitt & Caspi, 2001).”
BackgroundIntergenerational transmission of antisocial behavior: How do kids become antisocial adults?
Blazei, R. W. H., Iacono, W. G., & Krueger, R. F. (2006) · Applied and Preventive Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appsy.2006.07.001 · Cited by 37
Hodgins, S., Kratzer, L., & McNeil, T. F. (2002) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1034/j.1600-0447.2002.1o109.x · Cited by 35
Child Sex Moderates the Association between Negative Parenting and Childhood Conduct Problems
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Externalizing problems and problematic sexual behaviors: same etiology?
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Examining the developmental trajectories of adolescent sexual offenders
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Sex differences and brain development during puberty and adolescence
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Preventing behavior problems and health-risking behaviors in girls in foster care.
Chamberlain, P., Leve, L. D., & Smith, D. K. (2006) · International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy · doi:10.1037/h0101004 · Cited by 35
“Consistent with Moffitt and Caspi (2001), we found that the early-onset subgroup of girls had childhood risk factors similar to those of their male counterparts.”
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Boles, S. M., Biglan, A., & Smolkowski, K. (2005) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2005.01.007 · Cited by 35
“It is known that there is a higher prevalence of antisocial behaviour and substance use in mid-adolescence than there is in early adolescence (Biglan et al., 2004) and that later starting delinquents are less likely to become career criminals (Patterson & Yoerger, 1997; Moffit & Caspi, 2001).”
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Adolescent Antisocial Behavior as Predictor of Adverse Outcomes to Age 50
Molero, Y., Hodgins, S., Larsson, A., Larm, P., & Tengström, A. (2009) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0093854809350902 · Cited by 35
“These findings confirm previous results as well as the theory that—although ASB is less common among girls than among boys—the outcomes are similar (Moffitt et al., 2001).”
ResultDuncan, R. J., Washburn, I. J., Lewis, K. M., Bavarian, N., DuBois, D. L., Acock, A. C., Vuchinich, S., & Flay, B. R. (2016) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1007/s11121-016-0745-1 · Cited by 37
“Specifically, we anticipate there will be at least two unique classes reflecting (1) youth with overall more misconduct and lower levels of SECD and (2) youth with overall less misconduct and higher levels of SECD during this age period (Moffitt and Caspi 2001).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialEvidence-based assessment of conduct disorder: Current considerations and preparation for DSM-5.
Barry, C. T., Golmaryami, F. N., Rivera-Hudson, N. J., & Frick, P. J. (2012) · Professional Psychology Research and Practice · doi:10.1037/a0029202 · Cited by 34
“…best method for assessing age of onset, there has been sufficient evidence to support retaining this distinction in the DSM-5 (Frick & Nigg, 2012), as a greater severity and persistence of problems have been tied to childhood-onset CD compared with adolescent-onset CD (see Moffitt & Caspi, 2001).”
Child and Adolescent Psychopathology Predicts Increased Adult Body Mass Index
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Butler, S., Fearon, P. R. M., Atkinson, L. R., et al. (2007) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0093854807299770 · Cited by 34
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Atherton, O. E., Ferrer, E. E., & Robins, R. W. (2017) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000489 · Cited by 35
“…and girls experience childhoodonset and adolescence-limited externalizing pathways, but there are fewer girls that fit into either developmental trajectory, which suggests that the difference may be in the prevalence, rather than the developmental course, of the disorder (Moffitt & Caspi, 2001).”
van Hazebroek, B. C. M., Wermink, H. T., van Domburgh, L., Keijser, J. W. D., Hoeve, M., & Popma, A. (2019) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.avb.2019.02.016 · Cited by 35
“…individuals struggle with drug and/or alcohol addictions, experience psychiatric problems, and have numerous social problems, such as unemployment, homelessness, and financial difficulties (Dembo, Wareham, Poythress, Meyers, & Schmeidler, 2008; Loeber & Farrington, 2000; Moffitt & Caspi, 2001).”
BackgroundPechorro, P. S., Curtis, S. R., DeLisi, M., Marôco, J. P., & Nunes, C. (2022) · European Journal of Investigation in Health Psychology and Education · doi:10.3390/ejihpe12060041 · Cited by 33
The Linkage Between Deviant Lifestyles and Victimization
Chen, X. (2008) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260508322190 · Cited by 33
“…behavior, drug use activities, and other risky behavior such as early pregnancy may have cumulative effects by diminishing adolescents’ future prosocial opportunities and ultimately leading to an elevated level of victimization (Chen et al., 2007; Moffitt, 1993, 1997; Moffitt & Caspi, 2001).”
BackgroundDavid, T. J. (2004) · Archives of Disease in Childhood · doi:10.1136/adc.2004.055152 · Cited by 33
Raine, A. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511499883.003 · Cited by 35
Cognitive and Academic Functioning of Juvenile Detainees
Lansing, A. E., Washburn, J. J., Abram, K. M., Thomas, U. C., Welty, L. J., & Teplin, L. A. (2013) · Journal of Correctional Health Care · doi:10.1177/1078345813505450 · Cited by 35
Epstein, M., Hemphill, S. A., Bailey, J. A., & Hawkins, J. D. (2012) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0029309 · Cited by 34
Narcissism and Callous-Unemotional Traits Prospectively Predict Child Conduct Problems
Jezior, K. L., McKenzie, M. E., & Lee, S. S. (2015) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2014.982280 · Cited by 34
“However, many of these studies consisted of older youth, thus preventing inferences about the predictive validity of psychopathic traits early in development and specifically with respect to early-onset CP, which are associated with more significant risk factors (Moffitt & Caspi, 2001).”
BackgroundPapalia, N. L., Shepherd, S. M., Spivak, B., Luebbers, S., Shea, D. E., & Fullam, R. S. (2019) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0093854819851830 · Cited by 32
Developmental Criminology and the Crime Decline
Payne, J., & Piquero, A. R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108882149 · Cited by 39
The truck driver who bought a café: Offenders on their involvement mechanisms for organized crime
van Koppen, M. V., & de Poot, C. J. (2013) · European Journal of Criminology · doi:10.1177/1477370812456346 · Cited by 32
“…career in crime; the earlier an individual displays deviant behaviour, the more likely he or she is to continue offending for a longer period (see Moffit and Caspi, 2001; Nagin and Farrington, 1992), and the more serious this delinquent behaviour will be in terms of frequency and persistence…”
BackgroundDiagnostic Comorbidity in Psychotic Offenders and Their Criminal History: A Review of the Literature
Goethals, K., Vorstenbosch, E., & Marle, H. J. C. V. (2008) · International Journal of Forensic Mental Health · doi:10.1080/14999013.2008.9914411 · Cited by 31
“These early starters were comparable to what Moffitt & Caspi (2001) described as childhood-onset delinquents that had childhoods of inadequate parenting, neurocognitive problems, and emotional and behavioral problems.”
ResultThe Intersectionality of Sex, Race, and Psychopathology in Predicting Violent Crimes
Baskin-sommers, A. R., Baskin, D. R., Sommers, I. B., & Newman, J. P. (2013) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0093854813485412 · Cited by 36
“…violent offending are shown to be associated with predisposing genetic and environmental antecedents that have been found not to vary across sex (moffitt & Caspi, 2001; nicholls, odgers, & Cooke, 2007). many of the antecedents that have been identified are also those who are most concentrated…”
BackgroundSavolainen, J., Hurtig, T. M., Ebeling, H. E., Moilanen, I. K., Hughes, L. A., & Taanila, A. M. (2010) · European Journal of Criminology · doi:10.1177/1477370810376568 · Cited by 41
“(Moffitt and Caspi, 2001).”
Opening the Social: Sociological Imagination in Life Course Studies
Dannefer, D., Kelley‐Moore, J. A., & Huang, W. (2015) · Handbooks of sociology and social research · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-20880-0_4 · Cited by 33
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“This means that children with CP often will display multiple problematic traits and behaviors other than CP in itself, that increase risk for future CP and that most likely are possible to identify and target with interventions (Loeber and Farrington 2000; Moffitt and Caspi 2001).”
BackgroundMiles, J. N. V., Kulesza, M., Ewing, B. A., Shih, R. A., Tucker, J. S., & D’Amico, E. J. (2015) · Journal of Criminal Psychology · doi:10.1108/jcp-02-2015-0010 · Cited by 31
The Usefulness of DSM-IV and DSM-5 Conduct Disorder Subtyping in Detained Adolescents
Colins, O. F., & Vermeiren, R. R. J. M. (2013) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/nmd.0b013e3182a20e94 · Cited by 31
“In recognition of the developmental trajectories of antisocial behavior (Moffit, 1993; Moffit and Caspi, 2001), DSM-IV has adopted two subtypes of CD. Childhood-onset CD (CoCD) is defined as the onset of at least one CD criterion before the age of 10 years, in contrast to adolescent-onset CD…”
BackgroundMethodMatsuura, N., Hashimoto, T., & Toichi, M. (2012) · Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology · doi:10.1080/14789949.2012.746384 · Cited by 31
“The results were significantly different from those of Western countries (Moffitt & Caspi, 2001).”
BackgroundResultInterventions for alcohol-related offending by women: A systematic review
McMurran, M., Riemsma, R., Manning, N., Misso, K., & Kleijnen, J. (2011) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2011.04.005 · Cited by 31
“Longitudinal studies show that, as for males, these two principal types of offenders are evident among females as well as males (Moffitt & Caspi, 2001; Odgers et al., 2008).”
Social Adversity and Antisocial Behavior: Mediating Effects of Autonomic Nervous System Activity
Fagan, S. E., Zhang, W., & Gao, Y. (2017) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-017-0262-0 · Cited by 34
“Early life displays of antisocial behavior often persist into adolescence and adulthood (Moffitt and Caspi 2001), which makes early intervention critical as well as difficult.”
BackgroundInfluentialKozak, R. S., Gushwa, M. K., & Cadet, T. J. (2018) · Journal of Child Sexual Abuse · doi:10.1080/10538712.2018.1474412 · Cited by 30
“(Citation C) For example, sustained anti-social behavior over the life-course versus adolescence-limited anti-social behavior is an important dichotomy to understand as their trajectories have varying etiologies (Moffitt, 2015; Moffitt & Caspi, 2001).”
BackgroundNeuropsychological Subgroups of Emotion Processing in Youths With Conduct Disorder
Kohls, G., Fairchild, G. F., Bernhard, A., Martinelli, A., Smaragdi, A., González-Madruga, K., Wells, A. E., Rogers, J. C., Pauli, R., Oldenhof, H., et al. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.585052 · Cited by 32
“It should be stressed, though, that the empirical foundation of Moffitt’s theory is not directly concerned with emotion functioning, but focuses instead on neurocognitive domains, such as reading, memory, vocabulary, and IQ (76).”
BackgroundKindergarten conduct problems are associated with monetized outcomes in adolescence and adulthood
Goulter, N., Hur, Y. S., Jones, D. E., Godwin, J. W., McMahon, R. J., Dodge, K. A., Lansford, J. E., Lochman, J. E., Bates, J. E., Pettit, G. S., et al. (2023) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13837 · Cited by 32
Punishment Insensitivity in Early Childhood: A Developmental, Dimensional Approach
Nichols, S. R., Briggs‐Gowan, M. J., Estabrook, R., Burns, J. L., Kestler, J., Berman, G., Henry, D. B., & Wakschlag, L. S. (2014) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-014-9950-1 · Cited by 31
“Applying a developmental lens to punishment insensitivity is important for two reasons: (1) There is increasing evidence that severe antisocial behavior has roots in early childhood (Moffitt and Caspi 2001; Blair 2001).”
BackgroundGranski, M., Javdani, S., Anderson, V. R., & Caires, R. (2019) · American Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/ajcp.12377 · Cited by 32
“Additionally, boys are more likely to have early-onset disruptive behaviors compared to girls (Moffitt & Caspi, 2001).”
BackgroundIbrahim, K., Kalvin, C. B., Li, F., He, G. S., Pelphrey, K. A., McCarthy, G., & Sukhodolsky, D. G. (2020) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2020.100884 · Cited by 33
“The neuroanatomical mechanisms of sex differences in disruptive behavior remain unclear, despite known differences in the prevalence of disruptive behavior in boys versus girls (Moffitt and Caspi, 2001; Keenan et al., 2010; Demmer et al., 2017).”
Trajectories of Peer-Nominated Aggression: Risk Status, Predictors and Outcomes
van Lier, P. A. C., & Crijnen, A. A. M. (2005) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-005-0938-8 · Cited by 34
“In line with this, Moffitt and Caspi (2001) found that inadequate parenting predicted that children would follow the life-course persistent trajectory and Shaw, Gilliom, Ingoldsby, and Nagin (2003) reported that rejecting parenting and maternal depression increased the risk that children would follow a chronically hig…”
BackgroundHaberstick, B. C., Schmitz, S., Young, S. E., & Hewitt, J. K. (2006) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10519-006-9092-5 · Cited by 32
Which Behavioral, Emotional and School Problems in Middle-Childhood Predict Early Sexual Behavior?
Parkes, A., Waylen, A. E., Sayal, K. S., Heron, J., Henderson, M., Wight, D., & Macleod, J. (2013) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-013-9973-x · Cited by 30
“Research on the developmental pathways associated with life-course-persistent and adolescent-limited conduct problems suggests a greater accumulation of early problems for the former group (Moffitt and Caspi 2001).”
BackgroundTHE TIMING AND MECHANISMS OF THE OFFENDING‐DEPRESSION LINK*
Siennick, S. E. (2007) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2007.00091.x · Cited by 32
Discrimination against children
Webb, E. (2004) · Archives of Disease in Childhood · doi:10.1136/adc.2003.046300 · Cited by 30
Metadata
- Authors
- MOFFITT, T. E., & CASPI, A.
- Affiliations
- University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
- Venue
- Development and Psychopathology
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2001-05-16
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 355-375
- ISSN
- 0954-5794 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-2198
- OpenAlex
- W2058914725
- Cited by
- 1,669
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 30 · 2024: 48 · 2023: 47 · 2022: 55 · 2021: 47 · 2020: 127 · 2019: 53 · 2018: 70 · 2017: 84 · 2016: 90 · 2015: 99 · 2014: 97 · 2013: 108 · 2012: 98
- FWCI
- 143.30
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Development and Psychopathology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research Portal (King's College London) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5r01mh056344-03)
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH-49414, MH 45070, R01MH045070, MH-56344)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Crime Patterns and Interventions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychopathy, Forensic Psychiatry, Sexual Offending
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- sex differences, childhood risk factors, parenting
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adolescent Behavior, Antisocial Personality Disorder, Cognition Disorders, Female, Humans, Male, Parent-Child Relations, Risk Factors, Sex Factors, Temperament, Time Factors, Parenting
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