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Cited by 4Obsessive-Compulsive Spectrum DisordersRacial and Ethnic Identity ResearchAnxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes

A pilot study of experiencing racial microaggressions, obsessive-compulsive symptoms, and the role of psychological flexibility

Browning, Morgan E., Lloyd-Richardson, Elizabeth E., Satterfield, Sidney L., Trisal, Akshay V.·2023·Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy
DOI 10.1017/s1352465823000188
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Abstract

Background: Experiencing racial microaggressions has clear effects on physical and psychological health, including obsessive-compulsive disorder symptoms (OCS). More research is needed to examine this link. Psychological flexibility is an important process to examine in this work. Aims: This study aimed to examine if, while controlling for depression and anxiety, experiences of microaggressions and psychological flexibility helped explain OCD symptoms within a university-affiliated sample (undergraduate, graduate and law students). This was a pilot exploration of the relationships across themes. Method: Initial baseline data from a longitudinal study of psychological flexibility, OCD symptoms, depression, anxiety and experience of microaggressions was utilized. Correlations and regressions were utilized to examine which OCD symptom dimensions were associated with experiencing racial microaggressions in addition to anxiety and depression, and the added role of psychological flexibility was examined. Results: OCD symptoms, experiences of microaggressions and psychological flexibility were correlated. Experiences of racial microaggressions explained responsibility for harm and contamination OCD symptoms above and beyond psychological distress. Exploratory results support the relevance of psychological flexibility. Conclusion: Results support other work that experiences of racial microaggressions help explain OCS and they add some support for psychological flexibility as a relevant risk or protective factor for mental health in marginalized populations. These topics should be studied longitudinally with continued consideration of all OCD themes, larger sample sizes, intersecting identities, clinical samples, and continued exploration of psychological flexibility and mindfulness and values-based treatments. © The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of British Association for Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapies.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In a pilot cross-sectional sample of 77 racially minoritized university students, more frequent racial microaggressions were linked to higher obsessive-compulsive symptoms, especially contamination and responsibility for harm. Psychological flexibility showed some negative correlations with OCS but did not add to regression models beyond depression and anxiety.

Key findings

  • Racial microaggressions correlated positively with total OCS (r = .28), contamination (r = .35), responsibility for harm (r = .33), and symmetry (r = .23), but not with unacceptable thoughts (r = .02).
  • In hierarchical regressions controlling for depression/anxiety, microaggressions added to responsibility for harm (ΔR² = .04, p = .044) and contamination (ΔR² = .06, p = .018), but not to total OCS or symmetry.
  • Psychological flexibility correlated negatively with total OCS (r = -.28) and unacceptable thoughts (r = -.44), and negatively with psychological distress (r = -.47), but it did not significantly add to any OCS regression model.
  • Exploratory analyses found microaggressions positively correlated with cognitive defusion (r = .30); total OCS, unacceptable thoughts, and symmetry showed varied negative correlations with mindfulness, acceptance, and cognitive defusion, with mindfulness consistently negatively related.

Methods

  • Baseline data came from a larger longitudinal study; participants were 77 undergraduate, graduate, and law students at one mid-sized public northeastern U.S. university, recruited by email from 7,327 students, aged 18+ and endorsing at least one non-White racial identity.
  • Measures included the Daily Life Experiences-Frequency Scale for racial microaggressions, the Dimensional Obsessive-Compulsive Scale for OCS themes, the Psy-Flex for psychological flexibility, and the PHQ-4 for combined depression/anxiety.
  • Analyses used correlations and hierarchical regressions with depression/anxiety entered first, then microaggressions, then psychological flexibility; exploratory correlations examined Psy-Flex components.

Limitations

  • The authors state that the sample was powered for a medium effect with three predictors, but multiple tests and two main hypotheses raise concerns about under-powering or Type I error; they advise caution and larger replications.
  • The authors note limited generalizability from one university, inability to examine specific racial identities due to sample size, lack of socioeconomic data, retrospective self-report of microaggressions, and use of a college analogue rather than clinical sample.
  • Evident from the text: the design is cross-sectional and pilot-sized, so causal direction and temporal relationships between microaggressions, psychological flexibility, and OCS cannot be established.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1017/s1352465823000188

Cites

78 of 78 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

12 of 55 cited sources checked · 7 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Study design and conductown data

    An a priori power analysis using G*Power indicated that 77 participants were needed to detect a medium effect size with three predictors, .05 alpha, and .8 power.

    “To detect a medium effect size with three predictors, and .05alpha level, and a .8/80%power which is often considered to be sufficient for a medium effect size (Cohen, 1988), this necessitated 77 participants.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Faul et al., 2007 source

      The A Priori Power Analyses section says G*Power computes sample size from effect size, significance level, and required power. The Tests for Correlation and Regression section describes a multiple-regression procedure and identifies f² = 0.15 as a medium effect. Our copy does not report that these inputs with three predictors require 77 participants, so it supports the method but not the stated result. (LLM, conf=0.83)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Willis and Neblett (2018) source
    • cites Cohen, 1988

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Findingown data

    Experiences of microaggressions are positively correlated with contamination OCD symptoms (r = .35, p < .001).

    “5. Contamination a | .86*** | .35** | .43*** | -.14 | -”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Experiences of racial microaggressions significantly and near moderately positively correlated with cognitive defusion.

    “Exploratory correlations demonstrated that experiences of racial microaggressions significantly and near moderately were positively correlated with cognitive defusion.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    This study had null results for psychological flexibility to explain OCD in the context of experiences of racial microaggressions.

    “This study did have null results for psychological flexibility to explain OCD in the context of experiences of racial microaggressions”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Experience of racial microaggressions significantly correlated with all OCD symptoms except for unacceptable thoughts.

    “Experience of racial microaggressions significantly correlated with all OCD symptoms except for unacceptable thoughts, so four models were built.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 28
  • May combine two claims. 31
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 4

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Vigilance, or monitoring and adjusting one's behaviour to protect oneself from discrimination, has mediated the link between discrimination and stress.

    “Vigilance, or monitoring and adjusting one's behaviour to protect oneself from discrimination has mediated the link between discrimination and stress (Himmelstein et al., 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Himmelstein et al., 2015 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Psychological flexibility measured broadly, or as specific processes such as experiential avoidance, is associated with mental health outcomes after experiencing racism and discrimination, such that more avoidance and inflexible coping leads to worsened mental health and avoidance, and more mindful awareness can buffer these negative impacts.

    “For instance, psychological flexibility measured broadly, or as specific processes such as experiential avoidance, is associated with mental health outcomes after experiencing racism and discrimination, such that more avoidance and inflexible coping leads to worsened mental health and avoidance, and more mindful awareness can buffer these negative impacts (Davis et al., 2021;Martinez et al., 2022a”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Davis et al., 2021 source

      Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Martinez et al., 2022a

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Masuda et al., 2022 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Experiencing racial discrimination is associated with higher OCD symptom severity, with racial identity beliefs sometimes acting as vulnerability factors and sometimes acting as protective factors.

    “They summarize in their review that experiencing racial discrimination is associated with higher OCD symptom severity, with racial identity beliefs sometimes acting as vulnerability factors and sometimes acting as protective factors (MacIntyre et al., 2023).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites MacIntyre et al., 2023 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Psychological inflexibility and experiential avoidance are associated with obsessive-compulsive symptoms and psychological distress.

    “Psychological inflexibility and experiential avoidance are also associated with OCS and psychological distress (Angelakis and Pseftogianni, 2021;Bond et al., 2011).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Angelakis and Pseftogianni, 2021 source
    • cites Bond et al., 2011 source

      The Results and Discussion (page unavailable) report that higher psychological inflexibility or experiential avoidance was associated with greater depressive and anxiety-related symptoms, stress, and overall psychological ill-health. This supports the psychological-distress portion, but our copy does not report an association specifically with obsessive-compulsive symptoms. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Racism has associated mental health difficulties, and it has specific associations with obsessive-compulsive symptoms.

    “It is clear that racism has associated mental health difficulties, and it has specific associations with OCS as well that need to be further studied.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites MacIntyre et al., 2023 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Acceptance and commitment therapy is effective for treating OCD, as are mindfulness-based interventions.

    “ACT, of which psychological flexibility/inflexibility is a process of change, is effective for treating OCD, as are mindfulness-based interventions (Bluett et al., 2014;Chien et al., 2022;Twohig et al., 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Bluett et al., 2014 source
    • cites Chien et al., 2022 source
    • cites Twohig et al., 2010 source

      The Discussion reports greater improvement in OCD symptoms with ACT than with progressive relaxation training, and the paper describes psychological flexibility as an ACT process. The Method section says the ACT protocol included mindfulness exercises, but the study did not evaluate mindfulness-based interventions as separate treatments for OCD, so it does not support that part of the sentence. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The study included multiple data quality checks and many aligned with recommended strategies after a retrospective literature review.

    “Steps outlined in this study were designed based on the study team's experience and consultations with colleagues, but after a retrospective literature review, many strategies did align with those recommended (Griffin et al., 2022;Pozzar et al., 2020).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Griffin et al., 2022 source
    • cites Pozzar et al., 2020 source

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    The Psy-Flex measure had acceptable internal consistency in this sample (Cronbach's alpha = .735).

    “Cronbach's α was .735.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gloster et al., 2021 source

      Section 3.3 (Reliability; page unavailable) supports the general point that Psy-Flex scores had internal consistency. It reports Raykov reliability coefficients, however, not Cronbach’s alpha, and does not establish the cited value of .735 in the citing study’s sample. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Psychological flexibility has a clear previously established impact on quality of life and functioning.

    “as does psychological flexibility (Kashdan and Rottenberg, 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kashdan and Rottenberg, 2010 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Contamination symptoms and responsibility for harm symptoms did not correlate with any psychological flexibility items, but total OCS, unacceptable thoughts and symmetry symptoms had varied patterns of correlations with mindfulness, cognitive defusion, acceptance, and awareness of values.

    “For OCD symptoms, contamination symptoms and responsibility for harm symptoms did not correlate with any psychological flexibility items, but total OCS, unacceptable thoughts and symmetry symptoms had varied patterns of correlations with mindfulness, cognitive defusion, acceptance, and awareness of values.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Psychological flexibility significantly, negatively, and near moderately correlated with total OCS, moderately with unacceptable thoughts symptoms, and significantly, negatively, and near strongly correlated with psychological distress.

    “Psychological flexibility significantly, negatively, and near moderately correlated with total OCS, moderately with unacceptable thoughts symptoms, and significantly, negatively, and near strongly correlated with psychological distress.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the total OCD model, psychological distress significantly explained 35.6% of the variance in OCS, while experiences of racial microaggressions and psychological flexibility did not significantly add to the model.

    “For the total OCD model, psychological distress significantly explained 35.6% of the variance in OCS (F 1,75 = 41.38,p<.001).Experiences of racial microaggressions and psychological flexibility did not significantly add to the model, nor were they significant.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Experience of racial microaggressions had significant positive near moderate to moderate correlations with responsibility for harm, contamination, symmetry, total OCS, and psychological distress.

    “According to Cohen's (1988) correlation guidelines (.1 = weak, .3= moderate and .5 = strong), experience of racial microaggressions had significant positive near moderate to moderate correlations with responsibility for harm, contamination, symmetry, total OCS, and psychological distress.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cohen, 1988

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The sample's mean OCS score (M = 18.88, SD = 13.90) fell between that of patients with OCD and those with other anxiety disorders, and was above the clinical cut-off score of 18.

    “The sample's mean OCS score (M = 18.88,SD = 13.90) fell between that of patients with OCD and those with other anxiety disorders, and it was above the clinical cut-off score of 18 (Abramowitz et al., 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Abramowitz et al., 2010 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    For total OCS, unacceptable thoughts, and symmetry OCS, there were some correlations with mindfulness, acceptance, and cognitive defusion, but consistent relationships with mindfulness, all negative.

    “For total OCS, unacceptable thoughts, and symmetry OCS, there were some correlations with mindfulness, acceptance, and cognitive defusion, but consistent relationships with mindfulness.These were all negative.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Mean microaggression scores neared 30 (M = 29.63, SD = 20.51), suggesting that on average participants experienced each occurrence once to a few times.

    “Mean microaggression scores neared 30 (M = 29.63,SD = 20.51),suggesting that on average participants experienced each occurrence once to a few times (Harrell et al., 1997).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Harrell et al., 1997

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the contamination model, psychological distress explained 18.8% of the variance in OCS; adding experiences of racial microaggressions significantly added to the model (Delta R-squared = .06), so that both experiences of racial microaggressions and psychological distress significantly explained 24.8% of the variance in contamination OCS; psychological flexibility did not significantly add.

    “For the contamination model, psychological distress explained 18.8% of the variance in OCS (F 1,75 = 17.41, p<.001).Adding experiences of racial microaggressions significantly added to the model (F 1,74 = 5.99, p = .018,ΔR 2 = .06)so that both experiences of racial microaggressions and psychological distress significantly explained 24.8% of the variance in contamination OCS (F 2,74 = 12.2, p<.001)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the responsibility for harm model, while co-varying for psychological distress, experience of racial microaggressions significantly explained 34.3% of the variance in OCS and significantly added to the previous model with just psychological distress (Delta R-squared = .04).

    “For the responsibility for harm model, while co-varying for psychological distress, experience of racial microaggressions significantly explained 34.3% of the variance in OCS (F 2,74 = 19.34,p<.001) and experience of racial microaggressions significantly added to the previous model with just psychological distress (F 1,74 = 4.21, p = .044,ΔR 2 = .04).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the symmetry model, psychological distress explained 17.6% of the variance in OCS, and adding experiences of racial microaggressions or psychological flexibility did not significantly add to the model.

    “For the symmetry model, psychological distress explained 17.6% of the variance in OCS, (F 1,75 = 16.02,p<.001).Adding experiences of racial microaggressions did not significantly add to the model and they were not significant, and the same was true for psychological flexibility.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In responses to text feedback questions, participants frequently reported appreciation of the survey topics, desiring to know study results, valuing self-reflection, and sharing other anecdotes of experiences of racism.

    “Anecdotally, in responses to text feedback questions, participants frequently reported appreciation of the survey topics, desiring to know study results, valuing self-reflection, and sharing other anecdotes of experiences of racism, supporting the usefulness of future qualitative research.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    In regression analyses controlling for psychological distress, experiences of microaggressions were not significantly associated with overall OCD symptoms (B = .09, ns).

    “DLEFS b | .09 | | | .04* | | | .24 | | | .02 | |”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Lifetime prevalence of OCD is similar across the whole population (1.6%), African American and Caribbean Black people (1.6%), and other racially minoritized groups.

    “Lifetime prevalence of OCD is similar across the whole population (1.6%) (Kessler et al., 2005), African American and Caribbean Black people (1.6%), and other racially minoritized groups (Katz et al., 2020).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Kessler et al., 2005 source
    • cites Katz et al., 2020

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A large study of Black Caribbean and African American adults found associations with racial discrimination and contamination, harm, washing, and repeating OCS.

    “A large study of Black Caribbean and African American adults found associations with racial discrimination and contamination, harm, washing, and repeating OCS (Williams et al., 2021).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Williams et al., 2021

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Experiencing racial microaggressions may relate to depletion of cognitive resources from related stress, other unhelpful cognitive appraisals about the meaning of these experiences, and subsequent reduced ability to manage intrusive thoughts.

    “Experiencing racial microaggressions may relate to depletion of cognitive resources from related stress, other unhelpful cognitive appraisals about the meaning of these experiences, and subsequent reduced ability to manage intrusive thoughts (Williams et al., 2017b;Willis and Neblett, 2018).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Williams et al., 2017b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Willis and Neblett, 2018 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Among participants in intensive/residential treatment for OCD, having a higher composite marginalized identity score was associated with greater OCS severity, namely more severe contamination, responsibility for harm, and symmetry symptoms.

    “Similarly, among participants in intensive/residential treatment for OCD, having a higher composite marginalized identity score was associated with greater OCS severity, namely more severe contamination, responsibility for harm, and symmetry symptoms (Wadsworth et al., 2020).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wadsworth et al., 2020 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Stress from racism may lead to rumination, negative health behaviours, decreased cognitive flexibility, and unhelpful and rigid use of coping skills.

    “Martinez et al. (2022b) provide a literature review on other models of coping with race-related stress that illustrate how stress from racism may then lead to rumination, negative health behaviours, decreased cognitive flexibility, and unhelpful and rigid use of coping skills.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Martinez et al., 2022b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Among over 3000 African American participants, everyday racial discrimination was related to presence of contamination and unacceptable thoughts-themed obsessions, multiple types of compulsions, and amount of obsessions and compulsions.

    “Among over 3000 African American participants, everyday racial discrimination was related to presence of contamination and unacceptable thoughts-themed obsessions, multiple types of compulsions, and amount of obsessions and compulsions (Williams et al., 2017b).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Williams et al., 2017b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Racial battle fatigue encompasses social, psychological and physiological responses to experiencing racism and was associated with tension, fatigue, elevated heart beat and blood pressure, feelings of frustration, exhaustion, intrusive thoughts, avoidance and withdrawal, fighting back, or potential acceptance of racist ideas.

    “Racial battle fatigue encompasses social, psychological and physiological responses to experiencing racism and was associated with tension, fatigue, elevated heart beat and blood pressure, feelings of frustration, exhaustion, intrusive thoughts, avoidance and withdrawal, fighting back, or potential acceptance of racist ideas (Smith et al., 2007).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Smith et al., 2007 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Experiencing racial microaggressions has clear effects on physical and psychological health, including obsessive-compulsive symptoms.

    “Experiencing racial microaggressions has clear effects on physical and psychological health, including obsessive-compulsive disorder symptoms (OCS).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Williams et al., 2017b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Willis and Neblett, 2018 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Racism, including experiencing racial microaggressions, and related stress are associated with later inflammation, chronic health conditions, suicidal ideation, externalizing and internalizing symptoms, and alcohol-related problems.

    “Racism, including experiencing racial microaggressions, and related stress, have become even more pronounced problems during the COVID-19 pandemic, and they are associated with later inflammation, chronic health conditions, suicidal ideation, externalizing and internalizing symptoms, and alcohol-related problems (Liu and Modir, 2020;Spanierman et al., 2021;Williams, 2020;Williams et al., 2023).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Liu and Modir, 2020 source
    • cites Spanierman et al., 2021 source
    • cites Williams, 2020 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Because the study tested two hypotheses and other correlations, analyses could be under-powered or Type I error could have occurred.

    “It is important to consider in this study that in reality, we were testing two hypotheses, about experience of racial microaggressions, and psychological flexibility, and there were other tests of correlations occurring in the study, so analyses could be under-powered or Type I error could have occurred.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The current study accurately represents Black participants, as well as Hispanic, and Native American/Alaska Indian, compared with the rest of the United States.

    “Upon reflection of racial data in the current study compared with the rest of the United States, it appears that the current study accurately represents Black participants, as well as Hispanic, and Native American/Alaska Indian (US Census Bureau, 2020).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites US Census Bureau, 2020

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The study attempted to alleviate Type I error concerns by separating main hypotheses and exploratory analyses and by ensuring sample size was powered for the main hypothesis.

    “We attempted to alleviate some concerns of Type I error by separating main hypotheses and exploratory analyses, and by ensuring that our sample size was powered for our main hypothesis, testing the relationship between experiences of racial microaggressions and OCD symptoms.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    There are numerous recent clinical guidelines and models for supporting people of colour with OCD.

    “There are numerous recent clinical guidelines and models for supporting people of colour with OCD that could be incorporated, adapted, and studied further (DeLapp and Gallo, 2022;Steele, 2020;Williams et al., 2020;William et al., 2022b).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites DeLapp and Gallo, 2022 source
    • cites Steele, 2020 source
    • cites Williams et al., 2020

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    OCD has a clear previously established impact on quality of life and functioning.

    “OCD has a clear previously established impact on quality of life and functioning ( Macy et al., 2013)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Macy et al., 2013 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationown data

    Bolstering mindfulness skills may be important for supporting the mental health of racially minoritized students.

    “This suggests that specifically bolstering mindfulness skills (or being able to focus on what is important in the present moment in relation to the wording of the Psy-Flex mindfulness question), may be important for supporting the mental health of racially minoritized students.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Degree programs or subjects studied may be a confound in studying OCD in college students, and the current study only assessed the amount of education completed, not specific subjects studied.

    “degree programs/subjects may be a confound, such as for students seeking law degrees, and the current study only assessed the amount of education completed, not specific subjects studied.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    Of 178 people who opened the survey, 77 completed all three multiple choice data checks correctly (57%).

    “This left 134 participants eligible, and of those, 77 completed all three multiple choice data checks correctly (57%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Stigma has a relationship to quality of life in people with OCD.

    “given stigma's relationship to quality of life in people with OCD (Kılıç et al., 2022<6>)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kılıç et al., 2022

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Psychological flexibility is a process of change in acceptance and commitment therapy and traditional exposure and response prevention for OCD.

    “Also, psychological flexibility is a process of change in ACT and traditional exposure and response prevention (ERP) for OCD (Schubert et al., 2022).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schubert et al., 2022 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The current study had an over-representation of Asian-identifying people, as well as Middle Eastern/North African, and multi-racial and bi-racial people.

    “The current study had an over-representation of Asian-identifying people, as well as middle eastern/north African, and multi-racial and bi-racial people (US Census Bureau, 2020).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites US Census Bureau, 2020

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Study results demonstrate the link between OCS and experience of racial microaggressions, which may be due to racial battle fatigue, vigilance, or depleted cognitive resources.

    “Study results demonstrate the link between OCS and experience of racial microaggressions, which may be due to racial battle fatigue, vigilance, or depleted cognitive resources as Williams et al. (2017b) suggest.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Williams et al., 2017b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The study sample was composed of people with racially marginalized identities, but did not have enough participants to examine results according to specific identities.

    “This study was composed of people with racially marginalized identities, but did not have enough participants to examine results according to specific identities.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    The Patient Health Questionnaire-4 had good internal consistency in this sample (Cronbach's alpha = .893).

    “Cronbach's α was .893.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kroenke et al., 2009 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    There were no missing data within the sample included in analyses.

    “Within the sample included in analyses, there were no missing data.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The sample in the current study was adequately powered to detect a medium effect size in a linear regression with three predictors.

    “The sample in the current study was adequately powered to detect a medium effect size in a linear regression with three predictors.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    There is strong support in the literature for mindfulness, values, and acceptance-based therapies, such as ACT, to support those experiencing microaggressions in a culturally humble way by strengthening psychological flexibility, reflective coping skills, and resilience.

    “There is strong support in the literature for mindfulness, values, and acceptance-based therapies, such as ACT, to support those experiencing microaggressions in a culturally humble way by strengthening psychological flexibility, reflective coping skills, and resilience (Martinez et al., 2022b;Neblett, 2019;Spanierman et al., 2021).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Martinez et al., 2022b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Neblett, 2019 source
    • cites Spanierman et al., 2021 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Higher endorsements of stigma and shame were associated with family disapproval in ethnic minority people with OCD.

    “the higher endorsements of stigma and shame were associated with family disapproval in ethnic minority people with OCD (Glazier et al., 2015)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Glazier et al., 2015 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The result that more experiences of racial microaggressions were correlated with higher responsibility for harm, contamination, symmetry, and total OCS, and not with unacceptable thoughts OCS, generally aligns with research demonstrating variable patterns of symptom levels in various symptom themes within various racial and ethnic identities.

    “This result generally aligns with research demonstrating variable patterns of symptom levels in various symptom themes within various racial and ethnic identities (Williams et al., 2021).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Williams et al., 2021

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

49 of 49

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Bisexual participant percentage does not match the sample size

    Minor

    Fifteen of 77 participants is approximately 19.5%, not 20.8%.

    Reported 20.8 · recomputed 19.480519

  • Marginalization count differs between prose and table

    Minor

    The prose says 17 participants felt marginalized, whereas Table 1 records 44 answering yes to that question.

  • Psychiatric-diagnosis percentages are reversed

    Minor

    Among 77 participants, 24 is 31.2%, not 68.8%. Table 1 also assigns 31.2% to the complementary group of 53 participants, indicating that the two percentages were exchanged.

    Reported 68.8 · recomputed 31.168831

3 of 3

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

2 of the 80 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. Katz, 2020, OCD in ethnic minorities, Clinical and Experimental Psychology, 6, 1
  2. 2022, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Browning, M. E., Lloyd-Richardson, E. E., Satterfield, S. L., & Trisal, A. V.
Affiliations
University of Massachusetts Dartmouth (US)
ORCID
Venue
Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy
Publisher
Cambridge University Press (CUP)
Published
2023-05-25
Volume
51
Issue
5
Pages
396-413
ISSN
  • 1352-4658 (ISSN-L)
  • 1469-1833
DOI
10.1017/s1352465823000188
OpenAlex
W4378172054
Cited by
4
References
80
Citations by year
2026: 1 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 1
FWCI
1.16
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Licence
www.cambridge.org/core/terms (unspecified)
Locations
  • Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Obsessive-Compulsive Spectrum Disorders
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Keywords
racial microaggressions, obsessive-compulsive symptoms, psychological flexibility, depression, anxiety, marginalized communities, university students, law students, mindfulness
MeSH terms
Microaggression, Anxiety Disorders, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, Pilot Projects

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-11.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-11.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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