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Biodiversity and ecosystem function: the consumer connection
Open accessAbstract
Proposed links between biodiversity and ecosystem processes have generated intense interest and controversy in recent years. With few exceptions, however, empirical studies have focused on grassland plants and laboratory aquatic microbial systems, whereas there has been little attention to how changing animal diversity may influence ecosystem processes. Meanwhile, a separate research tradition has demonstrated strong top‐down forcing in many systems, but has considered the role of diversity in these processes only tangentially. Integration of these research directions is necessary for more complete understanding in both areas. Several considerations suggest that changing diversity in multi‐level food webs can have important ecosystem effects that can be qualitatively different than those mediated by plants. First, extinctions tend to be biased by trophic level: higher‐level consumers are less diverse, less abundant, and under stronger anthropogenic pressure on average than wild plants, and thus face greater risk of extinction. Second, unlike plants, consumers often have impacts on ecosystems disproportionate to their abundance. Thus, an early consequence of declining diversity will often be skewed trophic structure, potentially reducing top‐down influence. Third, where predators remain abundant, declining diversity at lower trophic levels may change effectiveness of predation and penetrance of trophic cascades by reducing trait diversity and the potential for compensation among species within a level. The mostly indirect evidence available provides some support for this prediction. Yet effects of changing animal diversity on functional processes have rarely been tested experimentally. Evaluating impacts of biodiversity loss on ecosystem function requires expanding the scope of current experimental research to multi‐level food webs. A central challenge to doing so, and to evaluating the importance of trophic cascades specifically, is understanding the distribution of interaction strengths within natural communities and how they change with community composition. Although topology of most real food webs is extremely complex, it is not at all clear how much of this complexity translates to strong dynamic linkages that influence aggregate biomass and community composition. Finally, there is a need for more detailed data on patterns of species loss from real ecosystems (community “disassembly” rules).
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“This finding supports conceptual predictions that biodiversity loss should have greater consequences for higher trophic levels, in part because animals typically utilize more diverse resource pools and have more complex behaviours than do plants”
From Biodiversity enhances ecosystem multifunctionality across trophic levels and habitats (2015) · cites this paper as [33]
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Caro, G., Decaëns, T., Lecarpentier, C., & Mathieu, J. (2012) · Soil Biology and Biochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2012.11.019 · Cited by 51
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“Theory and experiments suggest that the diversity and feeding behaviors of consumers at intermediate trophic levels are important in determining how top-down and bottom-up trophic effects are compounded or attenuated within a community ( Duffy 2002; Cardinale et al. 2006; Douglass et al. 2008).”
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“The importance of consumer diversity and its effect on food web structure is gaining increasing attention in the light of the ongoing diversity–stability debate (Duffy, 2002, 2003; Worm & Duffy, 2003) and declining biodiversity.”
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“Commonalities can be drawn, with a structural attribute usually taken to mean measures of species composition (abundance, richness, diversity) and the patterns or structuring of these communities within physical habitats (Hobbs & Norton, 1996; Duffy, 2002), however definitions are rarely this explicit.”
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The analysis of biodiversity experiments: from pattern toward mechanism
Hector, A., Bell, T., Connolly, J., Finn, J. A., Fox, J. W., Kirwan, L., Loreau, M., McLaren, J. R., Schmid, B., & Weigelt, A. (2009) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199547951.003.0007 · Cited by 44
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BackgroundMicrobial biodiversity and ecosystem functioning under controlled conditions and in the wild
Bell, T., Gessner, M. O., Griffiths, R. I., McLaren, J. R., Morin, P. J., van der Heijden, M. G. A., & van der Putten, W. H. (2009) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199547951.003.0009 · Cited by 44
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“Theory predicts that consumer species richness will enhance the rate and breadth of resource uptake, reducing the biomass of primary producers (Holt & Loreau 2001, Duffy 2002).”
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“Litter decomposition is the most important ecosystem process that releases carbon (C) back into the atmosphere, and provides nutrients in forms that can be used for plant and microbial growth (Duffy, 2002).”
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Wright, J. P., Symstad, A. J., Bullock, J. M., Engelhardt, K. A. M., Jackson, L., & Bernhardt, E. S. (2009) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199547951.003.0012 · Cited by 43
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“The biological strength of these interactions details the conversion of abundance or biomass from one trophic level to another, and provides a direct link between the diversity and ecosystem functioning of a community and its ecological stability (Duffy, 2002).”
BackgroundImpacts of Invasive Species in Terrestrial and Aquatic Systems in the United States
Mayfield, A. E., Seybold, S. J., Haag, W. R., Johnson, M. T., Kerns, B. K., Kilgo, J. C., Larkin, D. J., Lucardi, R. D., Moltzan, B., Pearson, D. E., et al. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-45367-1_2 · Cited by 45
“In general, the novelty of a species relative to other community members influences whether it contributes uniquely to community function and productivity, or perhaps serves more redundantly as a buffer against disruptive forces (e.g., Duffy 2002).”
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“Lower diversity and an enhanced risk of extinction of species at higher trophic levels because of environmental stochasticity and external stressors, which weaken the top-down control, were also found for other terrestrial and aquatic systems (Duffy, 2002).”
BackgroundUnderstanding diversity–synchrony–stability relationships in multitrophic communities
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“Here, we aimed to expand upon previous reviews of DSS studies 13,34,35 to understand how considering multiple trophic levels in assessments of DSS can lead to different conclusions than when considered at a single trophic level.”
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Towards a food web perspective on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning
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“The number of species reported here as by-catch present serious concerns, where the functioning of an ecosystem is likely to decrease when removed species have key roles (Duffy, 2002; Andelman and Willig, 2003).”
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“Together these characteristics result in low resilience to demographic perturbation and high risk of extinction, conditions making them highly vulnerable to fishing [1].”
BackgroundDiatom community dynamics in a tropical, monsoon-influenced environment: West coast of India
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“…inconsistency is due to the pervasive experimental bias towards simplified, single-trophic ecosystems (e.g., grasslands), whereas the effects of diversity on more complex, multi-trophic ecosystems remains understudied (Duffy 2002, Striebel et al. 2012, Jabiol et al. 2014, Lefcheck et al. 2015).”
BackgroundBiological Control as Part of the Soybean Integrated Pest Management (IPM): Potential and Challenges
Bueno, A. D. F., Sutil, W. P., Jahnke, S. M., Carvalho, G. A., Cingolani, M. F., Colmenárez, Y. C., & Corniani, N. (2023) · Agronomy · doi:10.3390/agronomy13102532 · Cited by 37
Farías, A. A., & Jaksić, F. M. (2011) · Journal of Animal Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2656.2011.01824.x · Cited by 37
“One of the important ways in which top predators affect ecosystems is through prey consumption, mediating biological interactions and energy-nutrient flows through the food web (Duffy 2002; Casula, Wilby & Thomas 2006; Farias & Jaksic 2007, 2009).”
BackgroundPredators alter the scaling of diversity in prey metacommunities
Ryberg, W., Smith, K. G., & Chase, J. (2012) · Oikos · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0706.2012.19620.x · Cited by 30
“Accepted 20 January 2012 All organisms consume or are consumed by other organisms, making predation fundamental to the organization of communities (Wellborn et al. 1996, Duffy 2002) and often the numbers of species that can coexist locally and regionally (Paine 1966, Polis 1991).”
BackgroundMultiple predators indirectly alter community assembly across ecological boundaries
Wesner, J. S., Billman, E. J., & Belk, M. C. (2012) · Ecology · doi:10.1890/11-2061.1 · Cited by 37
Human impact gradient on mammalian biodiversity
Munguía‐Carrara, M., Trejo, I., González‐Salazar, C., & Pérez-Maqueo, O. (2016) · Global Ecology and Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2016.01.004 · Cited by 39
Managed ecosystems: biodiversity and ecosystem functions in landscapes modified by human use
Jackson, L., Rosenstock, T. S., Thomas, M. B., Wright, J. P., & Symstad, A. J. (2009) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199547951.003.0013 · Cited by 38
Atkinson, C. L., van Ee, B. C., & Pfeiffer, J. M. (2020) · Ecology · doi:10.1002/ecy.3100 · Cited by 38
Counterintuitive effects of large‐scale predator removal on a midlatitude rodent community
Maron, J. L., Pearson, D. E., & Fletcher, R. J. (2010) · Ecology · doi:10.1890/10-0160.1 · Cited by 37
“Key words: Columbian ground squirrel; deer mouse; Microtus montanus; montane vole; Peromyscus maniculatus; population fluctuations; predation; predator-exclusion experiment; predator–prey dynamics; Spermophilus columbianus.”
BackgroundMa, Z. (2019) · Energy Informatics · doi:10.1186/s42162-019-0100-4 · Cited by 45
Strong seasonal effects of waterbirds on benthic communities in shallow lakes
Rodríguez-Pérez, H., & Green, A. (2012) · Freshwater Science · doi:10.1899/11-129.1 · Cited by 36
“Ours is a novel study that addressed simultaneously the effects of 2 functionally (sensu Duffy 2002) different groups of waterbirds on a nontidal benthic community (but see Marklund and Sandsten 2002) and compared the effects at different times during the annual cycle (see Hamilton 2000 for such a…”
BackgroundBuria, L., Albariño, R., Villanueva, V. D., Modenutti, B. E., & Balseiro, E. (2010) · Hydrobiologia · doi:10.1007/s10750-010-0293-9 · Cited by 36
“On the other hand, it has been shown that increases in species less vulnerable to predators may mask trophic cascades (Persson, 1999; Duffy, 2002; Meissner & Muotka, 2006).”
BackgroundHahn, P. G., & Orrock, J. L. (2014) · Journal of Animal Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2656.12311 · Cited by 34
“Understanding how anthropogenic drivers alter consumer communities is important, because consumers contribute significantly to ecosystem productivity, biodiversity and ecosystem functioning (Duffy 2002; Schmitz 2008; Metcalfe et al. 2014).”
BackgroundBaird, D., Asmus, H., & Asmus, R. M. (2010) · Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science · doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2010.10.004 · Cited by 35
Vieira, E. A., Dias, G. M., & Flores, A. A. V. (2016) · Marine Biology · doi:10.1007/s00227-016-2872-4 · Cited by 35
Functional biogeography of dietary strategies in birds
Barnagaud, J., Mazet, N., Munoz, F., Grenié, M., Denelle, P., Sobral, M., Kissling, W. D., Şekercioğlu, Ç. H., & Violle, C. (2019) · Global Ecology and Biogeography · doi:10.1111/geb.12910 · Cited by 39
Mazzuco, A. C. D. A., Stelzer, P. S., & Bernardino, A. F. (2020) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.8289 · Cited by 37
Spivak, A. C., Canuel, E. A., Duffy, J. E., & Richardson, J. P. (2007) · Limnology and Oceanography · doi:10.4319/lo.2007.52.6.2595 · Cited by 35
“The resulting shifts in community composition at multiple trophic levels may precipitate changes in ecosystem functioning (Heck et al. 2000; Duffy 2002).”
BackgroundSelf-citationBoyer, K. E., & Fong, P. (2005) · Oecologia · doi:10.1007/s00442-005-0015-6 · Cited by 35
“This is certainly true for marine systems (Duffy 2002; Emmerson and Huxham 2002), even though the coastal zone has produced many examples of strong control by individual consumer species over physicochemical habitat features that can feed back to other biota (e.g., Bertness 1985; Gerdol and Hughes…”
BackgroundRoy, S., Karapurkar, J., Baidya, P., Jose, M., & Bagchi, S. (2023) · Soil Biology and Biochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2023.109225 · Cited by 38
Beyond diversity: how nested predator effects control ecosystem functions
Schneider, F. D., & Brose, U. (2012) · Journal of Animal Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2656.12010 · Cited by 34
“From this mechanistic viewpoint, identity effects manifest as systematic samplingprobability effects, as the chance of including a particular species identity increases systematically with species diversity (Duffy 2002; Ives, Cardinale & Snyder 2005).”
BackgroundOróstica, M. H., Aguilera, M. A., Donoso, G., Vásquez, J., & Broitman, B. R. (2014) · Marine Ecology Progress Series · doi:10.3354/meps10931 · Cited by 34
“Herbivory influences both intra- and interspecific relationships in local communities and modifies the landscape structure (Duffy 2002, Poore et al. 2012).”
BackgroundMulas, A., Bellodi, A., Cannas, R., Carbonara, P., Cau, A., Marongiu, M. F., Pesci, P., Porcu, C., & Follesa, M. C. (2019) · Marine Biology · doi:10.1007/s00227-019-3607-0 · Cited by 34
“Indeed, decades of ecological research have shown that changes in predator abundance can generate long-term consequences on the functionality and resilience Marine Biology (2019) 166:153 1 3 153 Page 2 of 16 of ecosystem structure (Paine 1969; Beddington 1984; Duffy 2002).”
BackgroundMixed-species herding levels the landscape of fear
Stears, K., Schmitt, M. H., Wilmers, C. C., & Shrader, A. M. (2020) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2019.2555 · Cited by 37
Zhang, R., Tian, D., Wang, J., & Niu, S. (2023) · Geography and sustainability · doi:10.1016/j.geosus.2023.05.002 · Cited by 35
Fear of predation alters soil carbon dioxide flux and nitrogen content
Sitvarin, M. I., & Rypstra, A. L. (2014) · Biology Letters · doi:10.1098/rsbl.2014.0366 · Cited by 33
Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning in evolving food webs
Allhoff, K. T., & Drossel, B. (2016) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0281 · Cited by 34
“Other studies suggest a saturation of BEF relations due to the dampening of trophic cascades in complex and diverse communities [28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33].”
BackgroundLinking the green and brown worlds through nonconsumptive predator effects
Sitvarin, M. I., Rypstra, A. L., & Harwood, J. D. (2016) · Oikos · doi:10.1111/oik.03190 · Cited by 33
The economics of biodiversity and ecosystem services
Perrings, C. A., Baumgärtner, S., Brock, W. A., Chopra, K., Conte, M., Costello, C., Duraiappah, A. K., Kinzig, A. P., Pascual, U., Polasky, S., et al. (2009) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199547951.003.0017 · Cited by 36
Amphibian communities in two contrasting ecosystems: functional diversity and environmental filters
Álvarez-Grzybowska, E., Urbina-Cardona, N., Córdova‐Tapia, F., & García, A. (2020) · Biodiversity and Conservation · doi:10.1007/s10531-020-01984-w · Cited by 33
“Understanding the relationship between biodiversity, community composition, and ecosystem functioning is one of the great challenges of ecological theory (Duffy 2002; Morin 2011; Córdova-Tapia and Zambrano 2015).”
BackgroundNutrient versus consumer control of community structure in a Chesapeake Bay eelgrass habitat
Douglass, J., Duffy, J. E., Spivak, A. C., & Richardson, J. P. (2007) · Marine Ecology Progress Series · doi:10.3354/meps07091 · Cited by 33
“Indeed, it has been suggested that the strength of top-down control depends strongly on the relative diversity of consumer and prey trophic levels (Duffy 2002, Duffy et al. 2007, J. G. Douglass et al. unpubl.).”
BackgroundSelf-citationStability of grassland production is robust to changes in the consumer food web.
Kohli, M., Borer, E., Kinkel, L., & Seabloom, E. (2019) · Ecology Letters · doi:10.1111/ele.13232 · Cited by 25
Emergent effects of ground beetles size diversity on the strength of prey suppression
Rouabah, A., Lasserre‐Joulin, F., Amiaud, B., & Plantureux, S. (2013) · Ecological Entomology · doi:10.1111/een.12064 · Cited by 32
“Different predator species often consume different prey species (Duffy, 2002) or different life-history stages of a single prey species (Wilby et al.”
BackgroundGustafsson, C., & Boström, C. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology · doi:10.1016/j.jembe.2009.10.013 · Cited by 32
“In this study, we explored the relationship between primary producers in terms of angiosperms, and higher trophic levels, primarily mobile consumers, which have a central role in the functioning of seagrass ecosystems (Duffy, 2002; BoströmandMattila, 2005;Moksnes et al., 2008).”
BackgroundKainz, M. J., Johannsson, O. E., & Arts, M. T. (2010) · Journal of Great Lakes Research · doi:10.1016/j.jglr.2010.02.004 · Cited by 32
“For example, changes in biodiversity (Dunne et al., 2002; Duffy, 2002), energy transfer efficiency (Pazzia et al., 2002), and/or species invasions (Vander Zanden et al., 1999) are now all known to affect food web stability.”
BackgroundAtwood, T. B., Hammill, E., Srivastava, D. S., & Richardson, J. S. (2014) · Oecologia · doi:10.1007/s00442-013-2877-3 · Cited by 32
“synergistic relationships between predators can create stronger trophic cascades as a result of greater consumptive or behavioral effects on prey populations (sih et al. 1998; Duffy 2002).”
Phylogenetic and functional underdispersion in Neotropical phyllostomid bat communities
Presley, S. J., Cisneros, L. M., Higgins, C. L., Klingbeil, B. T., Scheiner, S. M., & Willig, M. R. (2017) · Biotropica · doi:10.1111/btp.12501 · Cited by 32
Home ranges of lions in the Kalahari, Botswana exhibit vast sizes and high temporal variability
Zehnder, A., Henley, S. R., & Weibel, R. (2018) · Zoology · doi:10.1016/j.zool.2018.04.001 · Cited by 31
Metadata
- Authors
- Duffy, J. E.
- Affiliations
- William & Mary (US)
- Corresponding author
- Duffy, J. Emmett
- ORCID
- Duffy, J. Emmett
- Venue
- Oikos
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2002-11
- Volume
- 99
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 201-219
- ISSN
- 0030-1299 (ISSN-L)
- 1600-0706
- OpenAlex
- W2115004610
- Cited by
- 653
- References
- 173
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 24 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 26 · 2020: 30 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 25 · 2016: 34 · 2015: 37 · 2014: 36 · 2013: 36 · 2012: 27
- FWCI
- 16.47
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Oikos (publishedVersion)
- W&M Publish (College of William & Mary) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (9521184, 0096226)
- Strong
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Nature and Landscape Conservation › Ecology and Vegetation Dynamics Studies
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Plant and animal studies
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Applied Mathematics › Mathematical and Theoretical Epidemiology and Ecology Models
- Keywords
- biodiversity-ecosystem functioning, animal biodiversity, top-down control, trophic cascades, predator-prey interactions, species extinction, interaction strength, community disassembly, biodiversity loss, functional traits
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