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Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry
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“Collectively, these skills enable students to regulate their bidirectional relations with their contexts by processing, manipulating, and refining information; organize and recognize patterns in information; evaluate their thinking and learning strategies; intentionally transfer knowledge to new situations; and apply knowledge to solve increasingly complex problems (e.g., Flavell, 1979;Lai, 2011).”
From Malleability, plasticity, and individuality: How children learn and develop in context1 (2019) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“metacognitive feedback which prompts learners to reflect, track their progress, and develop self-regulated learning (SRL) skills.”
From Directive, metacognitive, or a blend of both? A comparison of AI-generated feedback types on student engagement, confidence, and outcomes (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“This level of metacognitive engagement ' thinking about one's own thinking' is a hallmark of high-impact learning experiences (Flavell, 1979).”
From Co-creating custom GPTs: an autoethnographic study of undergraduate students as partners in generative AI innovation (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Metacognition-cognition about cognition-encompasses the knowledge, monitoring, and regulation of one's own cognitive processes (Flavell, 1979).”
From The Metacognitive Paradox of AI-Assisted Creativity: A Theoretical Extension (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Hence, metacognition can be divided into two components, knowledge of cognition and regulation of cognition (Flavell, 1979; Schraw, 1998; Schraw & Moshman, 1995; Schraw & Sperling Dennison, 1994).”
From University students' Motivated Attention and use of regulation strategies on social media (2015) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Metacognitive knowledge and experiences are interrelated [64].”
From The Metacognitive Demands and Opportunities of Generative AI (2024) · cites this paper as [64]
In the citing paper
“A fifth potential barrier to insight is metacognition, or the processes which allow persons to be aware of and form integrated and complex ideas about the self and others.”
From Insight in schizophrenia spectrum disorders: relationship with behavior, mood and perceived quality of life, underlying causes and emerging treatments (2018) · cites this paper as [143]
Citations
Cites
Knowing when, where, and how to remember ; A problem of metacognition
Brown, A. L. (1978) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,469
Perspectives on the Development of Memory and Cognition
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An Interview Study of Children's Knowledge about Memory
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Self-citationRealizing That You Don't Understand: A Preliminary Investigation
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Developmental changes in memorization processes
Flavell, J. H., Friedrichs, A. G., & Hoyt, J. D. (1970) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(70)90019-8 · Cited by 401
Self-citationBrown, A. L., Campione, J. C., & Barclay, C. R. (1979) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1979.tb04135.x · Cited by 185
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Nascimento, N. L. (2023) · Revista Neurociências · doi:10.34024/rnc.2023.v31.15493 · Cited by 1
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Agonis, C. (2023) · Graduate Student Journal of Psychology · doi:10.52214/gsjp.v21i.11004 · Cited by 1
“…own learning, metacognition not only involves a patient thinking about what they’ve learned, but how they learned, in addition to examining their own learning process (Flavell, 1979 Metacognition has recorded that using our cognitive thoughts in learning can improve performance in an array of ways.”
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“A student equipped with critical thinking skills com-prehends what, why, where, when, and how to undertake tasks, thus positioning themselves for success both in school and subsequent professional endeavors (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundPerformance assessment: Improving metacognitive ability in mathematics learning
Mertasari, N. M. S., Sastri, N. L. P. P., & Pascima, I. B. N. (2023) · Journal of Education and e-Learning Research · doi:10.20448/jeelr.v10i4.5260 · Cited by 1
“Metacognitive ability refers to the ability of individuals to understand their own abilities (Flavell, 1979; Kornell, Son, & Terrace, 2007).”
BackgroundThe Effect Self-Efficacy On Economic Problem-Solving Student : Metacognitive Mediation
Fitri, D. S., Prakoso, A. F., & Haq, A. S. (2023) · International Journal of Emerging Research and Review · doi:10.56707/ijoerar.v1i2.11 · Cited by 1
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Cabo, C. (2023) · IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) · doi:10.1109/fie58773.2023.10343169 · Cited by 1
“Metacognition involves developing an understanding of how we think and where we are in the problem-solving process [18][19].”
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Glistau, E., Machado, N. I. C., & Trojahn, S. (2023) · Multidiszciplináris Tudományok · doi:10.35925/j.multi.2023.2.16 · Cited by 1
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“Autonomy, characterized by self-regulated learning, refers to the ability to plan, monitor, and evaluate one's learning (Baker & Brown, 1984; Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundMetacognitive awareness on EFL students’ writing anxiety: An Indonesian higher education context
Roslaini, R., Izzati, K. N., & Aziz, M. K. N. A. (2023) · Wiyata Dharma Jurnal Penelitian dan Evaluasi Pendidikan · doi:10.30738/wd.v11i1.15608 · Cited by 1
“Flavell (1979) divides metacognition into metacognitive Knowledge and metacognitive regulation.”
BackgroundDiefes‐Dux, H. A., & Singh, A. (2024) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--41288 · Cited by 1
Do Metacognitive Instruction and Repeated Reflection Improve Outcomes?
Clark, R. M., Kaw, A. K., & Guldiken, R. (2024) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--41900 · Cited by 1
Strategy use and self-perception in L2 academic reading
Aradi, C. (2023) · EduLingua · doi:10.14232/edulingua.2023.1.2 · Cited by 1
Intentional Learning Theory: Validating Its Measurement
Mollman, S., Muckle, T. J., & Martinez, M. (2024) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440241232745 · Cited by 1
“Intentional Learning Theory (ILT) was developed in the 1990s evolving from research of metacognition and cognitive monitoring (Flavell, 1979) and computer-supported intentional learning environment (Scardamalia et al., 1989).”
Kakar, Z. U. H., & Kaukab, S. R. (2023) · Pakistan Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences · doi:10.52131/pjhss.2023.1104.0705 · Cited by 2
“Assessments can include metacognitive components, such as reflective essays or self-assessment sections, to evaluate students' awareness of their learning processes and ability to regulate their cognitive activities (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundOffredi, A., Oppo, A., Ruggiero, G. M., Caselli, G., Mansueto, G., Scaini, S., Palmieri, S., & Sassaroli, S. (2024) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-024-00542-5 · Cited by 1
“In line with the description proposed by Flavell (1979), which defined metacognitive knowledge as “that segment of your (a child’s, an adult’s) stored world knowledge that has to do with people as cognitive creatures and with their diverse cognitive tasks, goals, actions, and experiences” (p. 906),…”
Shortcomings in Design Education: Exploring Metacognitive Activities
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Ridler, J., Millar, A., & Schwannauer, M. (2024) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-024-02326-5 · Cited by 2
“Metacognition is loosely described as thinking about thinking (Flavell, 1979).”
Blindness of intentions and metacognitive deficits during moral judgements in schizophrenia
Cyrkot, T., Ramsey, D. J., Wójta-Kempa, M., Misiak, B., & Szczepanowski, R. (2024) · Advances in Clinical and Experimental Medicine · doi:10.17219/acem/175918 · Cited by 1
“23,24 There is also a view that metacognition is used to evaluate one’s own decisions.”
BackgroundInvestigating The Influence of Metacognitive Awareness in Academic Reading
Subramanian, S. K., Komarudin, N. E., Alih, N. A. C., et al. (2024) · Asian Journal of Research in Education and Social Sciences · doi:10.55057/ajress.2024.6.1.13 · Cited by 1
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“Flavell (1979) examines the importance of both in cognitive development and decision making.”
Arrosyidah, H. J., Munir, A., & Mustofa, A. (2024) · Eralingua Jurnal Pendidikan Bahasa Asing dan Sastra · doi:10.26858/eralingua.v8i1.59595 · Cited by 2
“It is the capacity for people to be aware of their own cognitive processes and to monitor, regulate, control, and adapt them as necessary for the learning process (Flavell, 1979).”
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Cook, A. E., Potts, A. C., Kupcová, M., et al. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-54896-3_12 · Cited by 1
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“Metacognition relates to knowledge or beliefs about oneself and others as cognitive agents regarding tasks, actions/strategies, and interactions to influence the outcome of any kind of intellectual activity/effort (Flavell, 1979; Gourgey, 2001; Fleming & Frith, 2014).”
Exploring an online metacognitive intervention on young and mature employees: A preliminary study
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“Metacognition is how one monitors or thinks about one ’ s own or others ’ cognition (Flavell, 1979).”
Mindfulness-Based Interventions
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“According to one line of thought, epistemic feelings are metacognitive because they are based on meta-representations of first-order cognitions (Flavell, 1979; Nelson & Narens, 1990).”
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“17 Certain studies show that metacognitions regarding insomnia have a mediating role between emotional stability and the effects of self-reported sleep quality.”
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““Cognition about cognition” is arguably the simplest definition of metacognition (Flavell, 1979), which plays a role in learning (e.g., Schraw et al., 2006) and behavioral adaptation (e.g., Brown, 1987).”
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“…which includes awareness of one’s own cognitive abilities, understanding of various learning strategies, and knowledge of when and how to apply these strategies effectively; and metacognitive regulation, which refers to the ability to plan, monitor, and evaluate one’s cognitive processes [29,30].”
BackgroundIdentification of Relationship between Meta Cognition and Misconceptions
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“Crucial to the construction of implicit explanation is the concept of metacognition, i.e., cognition about cognitive phenomena or thinking about one’s own thinking ([5]; which is closely related to critical thinking).”
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“Metacognition refers to the awareness and regulation of one's own cognitive processes, often described as "thinking about thinking" [5, 6].”
BackgroundDunham, H. L., Alexander, K. H., & McDonald, E. P. (2024) · Literacy Research Theory Method and Practice · doi:10.1177/23813377241285826 · Cited by 1
“The Role of Metacognition in Preparing Literacy Teachers Flavell (1979) introduced metacognition as a process of cognitive monitoring where metacognitive knowledge, experiences, tasks, and actions (strategies) interact in complex ways.”
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“A crucial precur - sor to self-regulate learning is metacognition, which is the awareness and regulation of one’s cognition (Dörr & Perels, 2019 ; Flavell, 1979 ).”
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“As Flavell (1979 ) defined it, metacogni - tion involves both awareness of one’s mental processes and the ability to regulate them.”
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“The study of metacognition originated in research within cognitive psychology (Flavell, 1979; Hart, 1965, 1967) and has evolved significantly since its inception.”
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“In 1979, Flavell stated that, meta-cognitive knowledge is one’s stored knowledge or beliefs about oneself and others as cognitive agents, about tasks, about actions or strategies, and about how all these interact to affect the outcomes of any sort of intellectual enterprise[2].”
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“Reflection and creativity are correlated (Flavell, 1979).”
The Psychology of Human Action
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Learner application of strategies in a strategies-focused ESL listening curriculum
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Usage des nouvelles technologies pour étudier les apprentissages scolaires et les favoriser
Clavel, C., Philip, L., Jáuregui, D. A. G., Padovani, S., & Martin, J.-C. (2015) · Enfance · doi:10.4074/s0013754515001032 · Cited by 1
“On entend par métacognition, l’activité du sujet sur sa propre cognition (Flavell, 1979) et par autorégulation, l’ensemble des stratégies cognitives, métacognitives et motivationnelles que les sujets mettent en place pour atteindre un but (Schunk, 1994).”
BackgroundGönüllü, İ., & Artar, M. (2014) · DergiPark (Istanbul University) · doi:10.17244/eku.69710 · Cited by 1
“Flavell defined metacognitive experiences; as conscious cognitive or affective experiences that occur during the enterprise and concern any aspect of it— often, how well it is going (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundEl mejoramiento de la capacidad para aprender a través de la lectura
Morles, A. (1997) · Revista de Psicología · doi:10.18800/psico.199702.005 · Cited by 1
A Comparison of Classification Technique for Metacognitive Knowledge
Joo, P. S., Sanrach, C., & Chaijaroen, S. (2011) · Advanced materials research · doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.403-408.4538 · Cited by 1
The Effects of Metacognitve Strategy Training on the Graduates Listening
Cai-yu, Y. (2013) · doi:10.2991/iaw-sc.2013.209 · Cited by 1
“Flavell believes that ―Metacognitive Knowledge can have a number of concrete and important effects on the cognitive enterprises of children and adults [4].”
BackgroundThe Effect of goal orientation of attention, learning, and metacognitive awareness
Edwards, O. V. (2010) · Digital Scholarship - UNLV (University of Nevada Reno) · doi:10.34917/1456884 · Cited by 1
Moghadam, N. S., Abolmaali, K., & Mojtabaie, M. (2014) · Health · doi:10.4236/health.2014.613197
“The term “meta-cognition” was first used by Flovel [3] and defined as “thinking about thinking”.”
MethodLa mobilisation de stratégies de lecture sur trois formes de documents en 3e secondaire
Carignan, I. (2013) · Nouveaux cahiers de la recherche en éducation · doi:10.7202/1017465ar · Cited by 1
Critical success factors in web-based corporate training
Jóia, L. A., & Lima, N. C. C. D. (2011) · International Journal of Learning and Intellectual Capital · doi:10.1504/ijlic.2012.043989 · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Flavell, J. H.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Flavell, John H.
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 1979-10
- Volume
- 34
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 906-911
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- OpenAlex
- W2093950336
- Cited by
- 11,282
- References
- 6
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1118 · 2025: 902 · 2024: 768 · 2023: 751 · 2022: 680 · 2021: 687 · 2020: 666 · 2019: 603 · 2018: 518 · 2017: 449 · 2016: 415 · 2015: 410 · 2014: 451 · 2013: 363 · 2012: 336
- FWCI
- 19.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- metacognition, cognitive monitoring, cognitive development, self-monitoring, metacognitive awareness
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