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Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry
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“Collectively, these skills enable students to regulate their bidirectional relations with their contexts by processing, manipulating, and refining information; organize and recognize patterns in information; evaluate their thinking and learning strategies; intentionally transfer knowledge to new situations; and apply knowledge to solve increasingly complex problems (e.g., Flavell, 1979;Lai, 2011).”
From Malleability, plasticity, and individuality: How children learn and develop in context1 (2019) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“metacognitive feedback which prompts learners to reflect, track their progress, and develop self-regulated learning (SRL) skills.”
From Directive, metacognitive, or a blend of both? A comparison of AI-generated feedback types on student engagement, confidence, and outcomes (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“This level of metacognitive engagement ' thinking about one's own thinking' is a hallmark of high-impact learning experiences (Flavell, 1979).”
From Co-creating custom GPTs: an autoethnographic study of undergraduate students as partners in generative AI innovation (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Metacognition-cognition about cognition-encompasses the knowledge, monitoring, and regulation of one's own cognitive processes (Flavell, 1979).”
From The Metacognitive Paradox of AI-Assisted Creativity: A Theoretical Extension (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Hence, metacognition can be divided into two components, knowledge of cognition and regulation of cognition (Flavell, 1979; Schraw, 1998; Schraw & Moshman, 1995; Schraw & Sperling Dennison, 1994).”
From University students' Motivated Attention and use of regulation strategies on social media (2015) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Metacognitive knowledge and experiences are interrelated [64].”
From The Metacognitive Demands and Opportunities of Generative AI (2024) · cites this paper as [64]
In the citing paper
“A fifth potential barrier to insight is metacognition, or the processes which allow persons to be aware of and form integrated and complex ideas about the self and others.”
From Insight in schizophrenia spectrum disorders: relationship with behavior, mood and perceived quality of life, underlying causes and emerging treatments (2018) · cites this paper as [143]
Citations
Cites
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Brown, A. L. (1978) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,469
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Self-citationRealizing That You Don't Understand: A Preliminary Investigation
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Developmental changes in memorization processes
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Self-citationBrown, A. L., Campione, J. C., & Barclay, C. R. (1979) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1979.tb04135.x · Cited by 185
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“John Flavell (1979) menyatakan bahwa metakognitif berfokus pada kesadaran seseorang dalam berpikir dan belajar, apa yang dipikirkan, bagaimana berpikir dengan mengaitkan dengan situasi dan mengapa kita berpikir dengan cara tertentu.”
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Gunawan, T., Kwako, L. E., Diazgranados, N., Koob, G. F., Goldman, D. A., & Ramchandani, V. A. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-32483-3_14 · Cited by 3
Kristjansson, K. R., & Fowers, B. J. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192871473.003.0009 · Cited by 1
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Perissinotto, H. T. D., & Queiroz, J. (2023) · Cognitive Semiotics · doi:10.1515/cogsem-2023-2008 · Cited by 1
Landinez, Y. A. Y., Arias, J. A. B., & Rodríguez, Ó. F. P. (2023) · Paradigma Revista de investigación educativa · doi:10.5377/paradigma.v30i50.17094 · Cited by 1
أحمد, م. ح., & علي, ز. أ. (2024) · تکنولوجيا التعليم سلسلة دراسات وبحوث · doi:10.21608/tesr.2024.337284 · Cited by 1
Biology teaching that develops the metacognitive aspect of learning: How to learn competence
Labak, I., Marunček, I., & Blažetić, S. (2024) · Journal of Education and e-Learning Research · doi:10.20448/jeelr.v11i1.5395 · Cited by 1
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Hulbig, P. R. (2024) · International Journal on Social and Education Sciences · doi:10.46328/ijonses.637 · Cited by 2
“For example, one of the most powerful cognitive phenomena in learning was initially described by John Flavell (1979) as metacognition and later expanded by Nelson & Narens (1990).”
BackgroundMetacognition in Teaching of English Language Teachers in Bhutanese Secondary Schools
Moktan, Y., & Khongput, S. (2023) · The Australian journal of teacher education · doi:10.14221/1835-517x.6045 · Cited by 1
“This awareness of affective experiences of engaging in a cognitive enterprise can significantly impact MK and MS, supporting the notion of ME as a significant facet of TMC (Ben-David & Orion, 2012; Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundInfluentiallinguistic analysis of teacher trainees’ reflective journals
Gonda, Z. (2023) · Studia Linguistica Hungarica · doi:10.54888/slh.2023.35.38.53 · Cited by 1
Self-Rated Confidence in Vocal Emotion Recognition Ability: The Role of Gender
Sinvani, R.-T., Fogel‐Grinvald, H., & Sapir, S. (2024) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2024_jslhr-23-00373 · Cited by 2
Negi, S. K., & Dwivedi, R. (2024) · The Open Psychology Journal · doi:10.2174/0118743501303163240527054423 · Cited by 1
Döş, B., & Asli, E. (2024) · i-manager’s Journal on Educational Psychology · doi:10.26634/jpsy.17.4.20635 · Cited by 1
Surabaya, U. N., Henra, K., Budayasa, I. K., Surabaya, U. N., Ismail, I., Surabaya, U. N., & Liu, M. (2024) · Perspectives of science and education · doi:10.32744/pse.2024.3.28 · Cited by 7
“Metacognition, as described by Flavell [10], includes two fundamental components: metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive regulation.”
BackgroundHow disciplinary detail obscures the metacognitive potential of curriculums
Termaat, A. (2024) · Curriculum Perspectives · doi:10.1007/s41297-024-00257-8 · Cited by 6
“Cognitive demands of education frequently apply Bloom’s taxonomy (Hess, 2013; Krathwohl, 2002) to categorize information into three groups, followed by a self-regulatory element (Flavell, 1979; Mevarech & Kramarski, 2014; Moshman, 2018; Pintrich, 2002; Schraw, 1998).”
Bagri, G., & Abrar, S. (2024) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2024.2372189 · Cited by 1
“A reader will determine their current level of comprehension by attending to the metalevel (higher reading goals) and deploy additional processing at the object level (understanding of words and sentences) if necessary to improve comprehension (Fischer & Mandl, 1984; Flavell, 1979).”
Making a Case for Artificial Intelligence Literacy Skills for School-Age Children
Kleinknecht, E., Blumberg, F. C., & Flynn, R. M. (2024) · Integrated science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-60713-4_13 · Cited by 3
Heidari, N., Neri, N. C., Schwippert, K., & Sprenger, S. (2024) · European Journal of Geography · doi:10.48088/ejg.n.hei.15.3.177.189 · Cited by 3
Kadan-Tabaja, A., & Yerushalmy, M. (2024) · Computers in the Schools · doi:10.1080/07380569.2024.2390406 · Cited by 1
“In other words, it can be defined as thinking about thinking (Flavell, 1979).”
Violeau, L., Valéry, K.-M., Waintraub, M.-O., Prouteau, A., & Lysaker, P. H. (2024) · L Encéphale · doi:10.1016/j.encep.2024.06.004 · Cited by 1
Klein, S., Mor, M., & Zion, M. (2024) · Journal of Biological Education · doi:10.1080/00219266.2024.2386254 · Cited by 2
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Nacua, S. L. D., Abcede, M. M. R., Nulo, S. L. H., et al. (2024) · International Journal of Science and Management Studies (IJSMS) · doi:10.51386/25815946/ijsms-v7i6p107 · Cited by 1
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“[8] 31.8% of the students agreed to continue agile learning in the future.”
InfluentialMitchell Finnigan, S., & Stone, M. (2024) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2024.102797 · Cited by 1
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“Theoretically speaking, this strongly aligns with development psychologist John H. Flavell’s important concept of ‘metacognition‘–the process of thinking about one’s own thinking [26].”
Ortiz, C. Q. (2024) · Arboles y Rizomas · doi:10.35588/3gy86v77 · Cited by 1
Metacognition and epistemic injustice in schizophrenia
Abasova, N., & Pacholik-Żuromska, A. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1525178 · Cited by 2
Analysis of Surprisingly Popular Voting for Opinion Aggregation on Social Networks
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Zhang, Q., Li, R., Qiao, Z., et al. (2024) · International Conference on Educational Technology (ICET) · doi:10.1109/icet62460.2024.10868204 · Cited by 1
“Flavel [8] proposed a model for interactivity, which contains four interactions in 1979: (a) metacognitive knowledge, (b) metacognitive experiences, ( c ) goals (or tasks). and (d) actions (or strategies).”
Metacognitive interventions for mental health disorders in adolescents: a scoping review protocol
Santo, A. E., da Silva, R. C. G., Balzan, R. P., de Pinho, L. G., & Sampaio, F. (2025) · JBI Evidence Synthesis · doi:10.11124/jbies-24-00210 · Cited by 2
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“Metacognition is usually classified into metacognitive monitoring and metacognitive control (Flavell 1979; Nelson and Narens 1994).”
Synthesizing cognitive mathematics learning taxonomies
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“One approach advocated by a Cautious Integrator is to promote metacognition, or “ thinking about thinking ” (Flavell, 1979, p906).”
Kim, H., Kim, E. J., & Han, S. J. (2025) · The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher · doi:10.1007/s40299-025-00991-1 · Cited by 2
“Metacognition is defined as an individual’s awareness and understanding of their own cognitive processes (Flavell, 1979).”
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“ER monitoring is similar to the idea of metacognitive knowledge (Flavell, 1979), which originally referred to people ’ s understanding of cognitive tasks and their effective problem-solving approaches (Donker et al., 2014).”
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“In accordance with the metacognitive theory (Flavell, 1979), the think-aloud approach provides learners with an opportunity to supervise their thinking and interact with texts.”
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“Metacognition is “cognition about cognition” (Flavell, 1979).”
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“Metacognitive knowledge is an understanding of the interaction between a person, activity, and strategy (Flavell 1979) while metacognitive skills are one’s ability to regulate their own learning behaviors (Veenman 2017).”
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“Metacognitive ability pertains to an individual’s capacity for self-awareness, monitoring, and adjustment of cognitive processes [8].”
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“The factors and items in the scale are directly related to the components in meta-cognition theories (Flavell 1979; Pintrich et al. 2000; Schraw and Dennison 1994; Veenman et al. 2006).”
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“Metacognition has often been referred to as a learning-to-learn process (Case et al., 2001; Flavell, 1979; Radovan, 2019).”
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“A difficult task requires “careful and highly conscious thinking” (Flavell, 1979, p. 908).”
Bal, M., UYUMAZ, G., & Maden, B. (2025) · British Educational Research Journal · doi:10.1002/berj.4212 · Cited by 1
Su, J., & Ye, H. (2025) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence13070083 · Cited by 1
“Metacognition concerns the individual’s awareness, monitoring, and regulation of their own cognitive processes (Flavell 1979).”
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“This ability to describe subjective feelings about one ’ s own listening experience is an instance of metacognition , the high-level capacity to re fl ect on one ’ s own way of perceiving, manipulating information, and thinking (Flavell, 1979; Fleming, 2024).”
Chen, Y., Kamaruzaman, F. M., & Nasir, M. K. M. (2025) · Forum for Linguistic Studies · doi:10.30564/fls.v7i7.10435 · Cited by 1
“This type of behaviour reflects low metacognitive regulation, particularly a deficiency in self-monitoring and evaluative awareness, as proposed by Flavell (1979).”
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“Metacognition is knowledge of one’s own thinking processes and is an important part of academic success (Flavell, 1979).”
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“Metacognitive strategies play a foundational role in the development of responsible DC by enabling learners to engage in ongoing reflection about their digital actions and decisions (Choi, 2016; Flavell, 1979).”
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“A third category, named metacognitive experiences, has also been added (Flavell, 1979) and has gained increasing popularity in recent years (Sun and Zhang, 2023; Sun et al., 2024).”
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“In cognitive neuroscience, metacognitive monitoring is defined as the awareness individuals have of their own cognitive processes and their ability to monitor and reflect on them (Flavell, 1979).”
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“Cognitive adaptability might promote greater flexibility by allowing individuals to alternate between thinking strategies and understand problems and opportunities more thoroughly (Flavell, 1979).”
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“The cognition model explained in ToM is considered “metacognitive knowledge” [54], and ToM and executive function development are thought to be linked [55].”
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“Metacognition mainly involves monitoring and reflecting on task performance (Flavell, 1979; Kuhn, 2022) and has been recognized as an essential process in idea generation (Lebuda & Benedek, 2023; Puryear, 2015 ).”
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“…their origin, meaning, and connections, excluding the influence of personal beliefs, assumptions, expectations, and desires (Teasdale et al., 1995); and metacognition, which refers to cognition about one’s cognition (Flavell, 1979), comprising the interrelated processes of monitoring and control.”
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“Metacognition, often described as thinking about one’s thinking, encompasses essen - tial cognitive activities such as planning, monitoring, reflecting, and evaluating one’s learning strategies and knowledge (Dunlosky & Metcalfe, 2009; Flavell, 1979).”
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Modeling meta-reasoning processes using diffusion and quantum random walk models
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“Furthermore, in line with Flavell ’ s pioneering work (1979) on metacognition, the results unequivocally indicate that students ’ inherent ability to re fl ect on and regulate their own learning processes is decisively integral in enabling meaningful engagement with digital resources.”
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“In the literature, such interventions are categorised as either discipline-specific (Brown, 1987; Flavell, 1979; Jacobs & Paris, 1987; Nelson, 1990; Schraw, 1998 ; Schraw & Moshman, 1995; Tobias & Everson, 2002) or broadly applicable across various fields (Blakey, 1990; Costa, 1984; Mayer, 1998 ;…”
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Smith, A., Galeote, D. F., Legaki, N.-Z., & Hamari, J. (2025) · International Academic Mindtrek Conference (Mindtrek) · doi:10.1145/3757980.3758006 · Cited by 1
“Metacog-nition is a person’s knowledge of their thinking processes [11].”
Normalasari, N., Ma’rufi, M., & Alam, S. (2025) · Pedagogy Jurnal Pendidikan Matematika · doi:10.30605/pedagogy.v10i4.7246 · Cited by 1
Mental time travel and insight in schizophrenia
Seif, P. (2025) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291725102572 · Cited by 1
“In schizophrenia, broad metacognitive impairments – especially in self-reflectivity (understanding one ’ s own thoughts) and mastery (using that understanding to respond adaptively) – are now considered core features of the disorder (Flavell, 1979).”
Navarro, E., & Rojas, T. (2025) · European Journal of Physics · doi:10.1088/1361-6404/ae2363 · Cited by 1
Kapil, M., Rostampour, R., Hadwin, A. F., Miller, M., & Lawrence, B. C. (2025) · Canadian Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1177/08295735251395628 · Cited by 1
“The traditional definition for metacognition is the experience and knowledge we have about our own cognitive processes that are governed by the interaction between awareness (monitoring) and adaptation (control; Flavell, 1979).”
Wang, Y., Gong, S., Jia, N., & Liu, Y. (2025) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.70157 · Cited by 2
La réflexivité, un processus de compréhension et de transformation clinique
Mouhoud, T. T., & Baubet, T. (2025) · Neuropsychiatrie de l Enfance et de l Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.neurenf.2025.10.004 · Cited by 1
Anore, M. A., Cordevilla, R. P., Nabor, E. D., Lumbay, A., & Uy, A. P. (2025) · Psychology and Education A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.70838/pemj.490703 · Cited by 2
Aladini, A., Wahab, M. O. A., Ismail, S. M., & Hashemifardnia, A. (2025) · Reflective Practice · doi:10.1080/14623943.2025.2596423 · Cited by 1
“…Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory (Kolb, 1984), which highlighted the daily group’s faster reflective progression, and Flavell’s Metacognitive Theory (Flavell, 1979), which clarified the importance of frequent awareness in sustaining dynamic learning strategies in teacher-centered classrooms.”
Akiba, D. (2025) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence13120156 · Cited by 2
“While existing frameworks have examined executive function (Diamond 2013) or metacognition (Flavell 1979) in CT contexts, none seems to have theorized the specific mediating role of InSp’s multidimensional architecture.”
Yang, Y. (2025) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2025.2596895 · Cited by 1
“The study’s findings, which show a significant improvement in students’ capacity to consider and refine their design concepts, support Flavell (1979) conclusion that metacognition is crucial for enhancing learning outcomes.”
Gómez-Barris, B. R., & Homrani, M. E. (2025) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2025.1660370 · Cited by 3
Metadata
- Authors
- Flavell, J. H.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Flavell, John H.
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 1979-10
- Volume
- 34
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 906-911
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- OpenAlex
- W2093950336
- Cited by
- 11,282
- References
- 6
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1118 · 2025: 902 · 2024: 768 · 2023: 751 · 2022: 680 · 2021: 687 · 2020: 666 · 2019: 603 · 2018: 518 · 2017: 449 · 2016: 415 · 2015: 410 · 2014: 451 · 2013: 363 · 2012: 336
- FWCI
- 19.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- metacognition, cognitive monitoring, cognitive development, self-monitoring, metacognitive awareness
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