The DOI matches its Crossref record; 6 of the 6 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry
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“Collectively, these skills enable students to regulate their bidirectional relations with their contexts by processing, manipulating, and refining information; organize and recognize patterns in information; evaluate their thinking and learning strategies; intentionally transfer knowledge to new situations; and apply knowledge to solve increasingly complex problems (e.g., Flavell, 1979;Lai, 2011).”
From Malleability, plasticity, and individuality: How children learn and develop in context1 (2019) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“metacognitive feedback which prompts learners to reflect, track their progress, and develop self-regulated learning (SRL) skills.”
From Directive, metacognitive, or a blend of both? A comparison of AI-generated feedback types on student engagement, confidence, and outcomes (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“This level of metacognitive engagement ' thinking about one's own thinking' is a hallmark of high-impact learning experiences (Flavell, 1979).”
From Co-creating custom GPTs: an autoethnographic study of undergraduate students as partners in generative AI innovation (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Metacognition-cognition about cognition-encompasses the knowledge, monitoring, and regulation of one's own cognitive processes (Flavell, 1979).”
From The Metacognitive Paradox of AI-Assisted Creativity: A Theoretical Extension (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Hence, metacognition can be divided into two components, knowledge of cognition and regulation of cognition (Flavell, 1979; Schraw, 1998; Schraw & Moshman, 1995; Schraw & Sperling Dennison, 1994).”
From University students' Motivated Attention and use of regulation strategies on social media (2015) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Metacognitive knowledge and experiences are interrelated [64].”
From The Metacognitive Demands and Opportunities of Generative AI (2024) · cites this paper as [64]
In the citing paper
“A fifth potential barrier to insight is metacognition, or the processes which allow persons to be aware of and form integrated and complex ideas about the self and others.”
From Insight in schizophrenia spectrum disorders: relationship with behavior, mood and perceived quality of life, underlying causes and emerging treatments (2018) · cites this paper as [143]
Citations
Cites
Knowing when, where, and how to remember ; A problem of metacognition
Brown, A. L. (1978) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,469
Perspectives on the Development of Memory and Cognition
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An Interview Study of Children's Knowledge about Memory
Kreutzer, M. A., Leonard, C., Flavell, J. H., & Hagen, J. W. (1975) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.2307/1165955 · Cited by 514
Self-citationRealizing That You Don't Understand: A Preliminary Investigation
Markman, E. M. (1977) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1977.tb01257.x · Cited by 415
Developmental changes in memorization processes
Flavell, J. H., Friedrichs, A. G., & Hoyt, J. D. (1970) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(70)90019-8 · Cited by 401
Self-citationBrown, A. L., Campione, J. C., & Barclay, C. R. (1979) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1979.tb04135.x · Cited by 185
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“Rather than a negative outcome, this can be interpreted as evidence of metacognitive recalibration [30,31].”
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Muhammadpour, M. (2025) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-025-08762-3 · Cited by 1
“MI is backed by the theory of metacognition which was pro - posed by Flavell (1976 , 1979) and tersely defined as ‘cogni - tion about cognition’ or ‘thinking about thinking’ (Goh & Vandergrift, 2021 ).”
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Reynders, M., & Holme, T. (2025) · Royal Society of Chemistry eBooks · doi:10.1039/9781837676576-00251 · Cited by 1
Chen, P. P., & Rossi, P. D. (2013) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-62396-134-320251010 · Cited by 1
Qi, C., Zheng, L., He, A., et al. (2025) · Expert Systems with Applications · doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2025.130753 · Cited by 1
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Gaafar, Y., El-Shinnawy, H., & Samie, M. A. (2025) · Middle East Current Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s43045-025-00608-9 · Cited by 1
“MC on the other hand, refers to “cognition about cognitive phenomena,” or simply “thinking about thinking” [32].”
DEMİRCAN, U., & Aydın, İ. S. (2025) · Batı anadolu eğitim bilimleri dergisi · doi:10.51460/baebd.1704031 · Cited by 1
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Xing, W., & Teng, M. F. (2025) · International Journal of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1111/ijal.70082 · Cited by 2
Meese, W. B. (2025) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/10888683251403209 · Cited by 2
“…(Lindquist & Gendron, 2016, p. 4) Metacognition Metacognition refers to thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that hold mental activity as its object (Flavell, 1979; Jost et al., 2013); they range from relatively automatic and less consciously accessible feelings to fully deliberate thoughts and…”
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Lu, X., Kaiser, G., & Chen, X. (2025) · Research in mathematics education · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-99082-3_5 · Cited by 1
Alrubaian, A. (2026) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-025-09450-0 · Cited by 1
“On the other hand, Metacognition refers to an individual’s ability to be aware of, monitor, and regulate their cognitive processes (Flavell, 1979 ).”
do Couto, M. D., da Silva, G. G., & Sodré, M. S. D. O. (2025) · Revista Educação em Páginas · doi:10.22481/redupa.v4i04.18157 · Cited by 1
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“Analytic metacognition refers to reflection on one’s own interpretive process (Flavell 1979; Tankelevitch et al. 2024).”
Klassen, M., & Friege, G. (2026) · Physical Review Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/58hn-493c · Cited by 1
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Arslan, Ş. (2026) · Pamukkale University Journal of Social Sciences Institute · doi:10.30794/pausbed.1731845 · Cited by 1
АНАЛІЗ ФЕНОМЕНУ ІНФОРМАЦІЙНОЇ ФІЛЬТРАЦІЙНОЇ БУЛЬБАШКИ В СУЧАСНОМУ НАУКОВО-ОСВІТНЬОМУ СЕРЕДОВИЩІ
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Evidence-Based Approaches to Teaching Critical Media Literacy in the Age of Misinformation
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The role of awareness in self-derivation of new knowledge through memory integration
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Ayasrah, M. N., & Almulla, A. A. (2026) · Journal of Research on Technology in Education · doi:10.1080/15391523.2026.2619142 · Cited by 2
ÇİFTÇİ, Y. E., & Bulut, İ. (2026) · Milli Eğitim Dergisi · doi:10.37669/milliegitim.1636216 · Cited by 1
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Adams, A. J. (2026) · New Ideas in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2026.101239 · Cited by 2
Granato, G., Mattera, A., Cartoni, E., & Baldassarre, G. (2026) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-026-37612-w · Cited by 3
“Because effective MC-C depends on adequate MC-M 6,96 , impaired self-evaluation may impair self-improvement.”
Evaluating training load self-monitoring in female soccer players: Estimating GPS-derived parameters
Valzolgher, C., Sorio, N., & Pecchini, A. (2026) · International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching · doi:10.1177/17479541261417824 · Cited by 1
Jafari, F., Keykha, A., & Shojaei, L. (2026) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2025.2612637 · Cited by 1
“Cognitive and metacognitive theories emphasize the importance of information processing, monitoring, and error detection, clarifying why competencies such as analytical questioning, critical evaluation of chatbot outputs, and adaptive thinking are central to this study’s focus (Flavell, 1979).”
Love, S., & Stefanidis, K. B. (2026) · Journal of Safety Research · doi:10.1016/j.jsr.2026.01.018 · Cited by 1
Sekano, G. K., Laubscher, D. J., & Bailey, R. (2026) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2026.1724270 · Cited by 1
“…further suggests that improving learners’ problem-solving abilities is vital for enhancing mathematics achievement (DBE, 2011) and that metacognitive skills, such as the ability to reflect on and regulate one’s own thinking, play a key role in this process (Flavell, 1979; Hacker et al., 2009).”
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Reframing Mathematical Learning Through Computational Thinking
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Self-assessment of second language comprehensibility: The roles of peer-assessment and metacognition
Tsunemoto, A., & Trofimovich, P. (2026) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s014271642510043x · Cited by 1
“In addition, although self-assessment is a metacognitive skill that enables people to monitor, evaluate, and control their own performance (Craig et al., 2020; Flavell, 1979), it is far from clear how metacognition is related to self-assessments of L2 pronunciation.”
METACOGNITIVE SKILLS AND STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN STEAM HIGHER EDUCATION: A GENDER-BASED ANALYSIS
Kaur, K., & Beri, N. (2026) · ShodhKosh Journal of Visual and Performing Arts · doi:10.29121/shodhkosh.v7.i1.2026.7018 · Cited by 1
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Linking shared metacognition to community of inquiry in online graduate courses
Zhang, Z., Xu, Q., Tristan, L. A. C., Richardson, J. C., & Maeda, Y. (2026) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-026-10598-y · Cited by 1
“Metacognition is broadly understood as encompassing both metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive regulation/experience (Flavell, 1979, 1987), including awareness of cognition, monitoring processes, and control of strategies used in learning (Pintrich, 2000).”
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“This concept, grounded in research from cognitive psychology, rests on the assumption that consistent short-term self-assessments are positively associated with stronger long-term memory representations (Flavell, 1979; Veenman, 2017; Dunlosky and Metcalfe, 2009).”
Acoumambo, D., & Zoudji, B. (2026) · Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy · doi:10.1080/17408989.2026.2629918 · Cited by 1
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“Grounded in Metacognition Theory (Flavell, 1979), reflective learners who typically engage in deeper deliberation and the act of questioning, Therefore, these students require more time for thinking and internalisation in the classroom, and excessive interactive interventions may actually hinder…”
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The role of motivational beliefs and monitoring in learning spatial skills
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“Metacognitive awareness plays an important role in guiding students to plan, monitor, and evaluate the strategies they use when solving problems (Flavell, 1979; Schraw & Dennison, 1994).”
Hou, X., Liu, Z., Wang, G., & Shi, N. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1790196 · Cited by 5
“Central to this are three core strategies: planning, monitoring, and regulation (Flavell, 1979; Kouhpayehzadeh Esfahani et al., 2022).”
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“22,23 This aligns with evidence that cognitive processes can be shifted toward a more controlled, ‘‘persistence-heavy’’ style through explicit instruction, which is reflected in more adult-like neural patterns.”
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“Flavell’s framework diffrentiate metacognitive knowledge and from regulatory processess, while Nelson and Narens described monitoring and control as interdependent components of cognitive regulation [24, 25].”
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“…the role of a prior is fulfilled by a self-model: a simplified representation of one ’ s cognitive machinery (a form of metacognitive knowledge, Flavell, 1979) that can be simulated to estimate of one ’ s most likely behaviour in a given setting (for example, where one was most likely to leave…”
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Li, K. (., Mukundan, J., & Vasodavan, V. (2026) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2026.107105 · Cited by 2
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“Furthermore, some SRL strategies are task-specific and not equally useful across learning contexts (Greene et al., 2015), underscoring the importance of students’ strategy knowledge (SK) regarding when and how to apply strategies (Flavell, 1979 ).”
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“Consistent with metacognitive theory (Flavell, 1979), metacognitive behaviors were operationalized as learners’ planning, monitoring, evaluating, regulating, and reflecting on their cognitive and task progress.”
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Yakushina, A. A., Lakičević, N., Leonov, S., Vvedenskiy, S., & Drid, P. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1833469 · Cited by 1
“The term metacognition has been initially described nearly 50 years ago as one’s insight into and control over their own mental processes (Flavell, 1979).”
Reconceptualizing consciousness as an intelligence: A five-level model of access consciousness
Gignac, G. E. (2026) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2026.102039 · Cited by 1
Panáčová, J., & Veseláková, J. (2026) · European Journal of Science and Mathematics Education · doi:10.30935/scimath/18785 · Cited by 1
Wu, J. C. (2026) · Discover Education · doi:10.1007/s44217-026-01818-x · Cited by 1
“Flavell [12] distinguished two core functions within metacognition: the monitoring function and the control of cognition.”
Relational AI in Education: Reciprocity, Participatory Design, and Indigenous Worldviews
Martínez‐Maldonado, R., Echeverría, V., Hawes, J., Kim, Y. J., Maddigan, Z., Milesi, M. E., Nelson, T., & Tsai, Y. (2026) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-29791-4_29 · Cited by 1
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“Making audience and purpose explicit through checklists and self-questions appears to have encouraged some learners to move beyond a narrow focus on correctness, in line with models of self-regulated learning (Flavell, 1979; Zimmerman, 2002).”
Yan, S., Yan, Y., Wang, S., Chen, S., Li, Y., & Ai, Z. (2026) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2026.103047 · Cited by 1
How motivation and roles influence metacognitive engagement in student-GenAI interaction
Cui, Y., Yan, W., Chiu, T. K. F., & Nakajima, T. (2026) · International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education · doi:10.1186/s41239-026-00610-z · Cited by 2
“Other foundational components of metacognition, in particular metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experiences (Flavell, 1979), were not coded as separate dimensions, as they are difficult to recover reliably from student-initiated messages addressed to GenAI.”
Li, Y. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1844841 · Cited by 1
“This makes metacognition central to the educational use of AI feedback (Flavell, 1979; Araújo et al., 2024).”
Programming Cognition with Language: Toward a Dialogic Architecture for AI-Mediated Learning
Adorni, G., Scala, D., & Torsani, S. (2026) · International Conference on Information Technology Based Higher Education and Training (ITHET) · doi:10.1109/ithet69978.2026.11585082 · Cited by 1
“This configuration is consistent with established models of self-regulated learning and metacognition [19], [20], [23], while extending them to dialogic contexts in which reasoning is mediated by interaction with generative systems.”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Flavell, J. H.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Flavell, John H.
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 1979-10
- Volume
- 34
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 906-911
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- OpenAlex
- W2093950336
- Cited by
- 11,282
- References
- 6
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1118 · 2025: 902 · 2024: 768 · 2023: 751 · 2022: 680 · 2021: 687 · 2020: 666 · 2019: 603 · 2018: 518 · 2017: 449 · 2016: 415 · 2015: 410 · 2014: 451 · 2013: 363 · 2012: 336
- FWCI
- 19.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- metacognition, cognitive monitoring, cognitive development, self-monitoring, metacognitive awareness
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