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Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey.
Abstract
The authors summarize 35 years of empirical research on goal-setting theory, describing the core findings of the theory, the mechanisms by which goals operate, moderators of goal effects, the relation of goals and satisfaction, and the role of goals as mediators of incentives.
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“These mutual goals direct attention and effort, serve an energizing function, contribute to persistence, and spark action indirectly by leading to interests, discoveries, and use of knowledge, strategies, and skills (Locke & Latham, 2002).”
From The Principles of Strengths-Based Education (2009) · cites this paper as Locke & Latham, 2002
In the citing paper
“Unrealistic expectations surrounding weight changes can lead to discouragement [67].”
From Barriers and facilitators to diet, physical activity and lifestyle behavior intervention adherence: a qualitative systematic review of the literature (2023) · cites this paper as [67]
In the citing paper
“Locke and Latham (2002) argue that learning goals are especially important for driving self-regulated attention and motivation.”
From Summarise, elaborate, try again: exploring the effect of feedback literacy on AI-enhanced essay writing (2026) · cites this paper as Locke and Latham (2002)
In the citing paper
“goal setting is generally acknowledged as an essential treatment intervention for procrastination because insufficient or inadequate goals often impair problem solving and lower motivation (Locke & Latham, 2002).”
From Understanding and Treating Procrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure (2014) · cites this paper as Locke & Latham, 2002
In the citing paper
“goal setting is generally acknowledged as an essential treatment intervention for procrastination because insufficient or inadequate goals often impair problem solving and lower motivation (Locke & Latham, 2002).”
From Understanding and Treating Procrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure (2014) · cites this paper as Locke & Latham, 2002
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“Closely related to self-efficacy, determination to achieve a goal (“goal commitment”) predicts adherence to a variety of health behavior changes and work-related tasks (Klein, Wesson, Hollenbeck, Wright, & DeShon, 2001; Locke & Latham, 2002; Miller & Rollnick, 2002).”
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“According to goal-setting theory, specific goals increase performance through narrowing attention, mobilising effort, prolonging persistence, and fostering cognitive strategies (Locke & Latham, 2002).”
BackgroundFreund, A. M., & Hennecke, M. (2011) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2011.570867 · Cited by 63
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Organizational Goal Characteristics and Public Duty Motivation in U.S. Federal Agencies
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“Numerous studies have demonstrated that more specific goals facilitate work motivation and performance more than do general intentions, such as “do your best” (e.g., Bandura & Cervone, 1983; Locke & Latham, 2002; Locke, Shaw, Saari, & Latham, 1981).”
BackgroundPhan, H. P., Ngu, B. H., & Yeung, A. S. (2016) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-016-9373-3 · Cited by 67
Goal Setting in the Principal-Agent Model: Weak Incentives for Strong Performance
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“According to Locke and Latham (2002) 90% of the studies show a positive correlation between the use of goal setting in firms and workers performance.”
BackgroundGoal measures for psychotherapy: A systematic review of self‐report, idiographic instruments.
Lloyd, C. E. M., Duncan, C., & Cooper, M. (2019) · Clinical Psychology Science and Practice · doi:10.1111/cpsp.12281 · Cited by 71
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“We offer some possible theoretical explanations for this, such as the diffusion of responsibility (Darley & Latane, 1968; Guy & Patton, 1989) and motivation when facing difficult tasks (Locke & Latham, 2002; Nicholls, 1984).”
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“Goal-setting theory from Locke and Latham (1990, 2002) states that more specific goals lead to higher performance, but the theory is based on the premise that actors have the ability to attain their goals.”
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“How these determinants are combined and/or moderated by the decision context is virtually unknown (Locke and Latham, 2002, 2006).”
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“…measures a single-dimension to be achieved, numerous empirical studies have demonstrated that when goals are specifi c (job-goal specifi city) and reasonably diffi cult (goal diffi culty), employee motivation and performance increase (e.g., Lee, Locke, and Latham 1989; Locke and Latham 1990, 2002).”
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“Prior research indicates that a positive relationship exists between specific, challenging goals and task performance, both for individuals and for groups (for reviews of the research, see Locke & Latham, 1990; 2002; O’Leary-Kelly, Martocchio & Frink, 1994; Weldon & Weingart, 1993).”
BackgroundMoral Utility Theory: Understanding the motivation to behave (un)ethically
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“Goals are well known for their ability to regulate effort, persistence, and performance (Locke & Latham, 2002; Staw, 1984).”
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“This is also in line with goal setting theory which posits that specific and well-defined challenging goals lead to higher performance [26].”
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MethodA goal-centric outlook on learning
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Martin, A. J. (2012) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2012.01.002 · Cited by 69
“This study draws on an important component of Barkley’s model and specifically operationalizes it through the application of recent theory and research on goals and goal-directed behavior (Locke & Latham, 2002).”
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“It has been found previously that specific, difficult goals consistently lead to higher performance than simply urging people to do their best [13].”
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“Next, based on DBDM data analyses, users should know how to set SMART and challenging goals (Locke & Latham, 2002), and they need to be able to choose effective strategies to meet these goals.”
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“Research on goal setting indicates that goals are easier to attain when they are constructed in affirmative approach language (Lyubomirsky, 2010) and are broken up into small, measurable pieces (Locke & Latham, 2002; Weick, 1984).”
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“Here, approaching a deadline should increase the likelihood that one closely monitors the distance to the goal (J. Heckhausen, 1999), which, in turn, provides a clear comparison standard and thereby increases the likelihood of goal achievement (e.g., Locke & Latham, 2002).”
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“Goal-setting theory (Locke & Latham, 2002) explains how goals in fl uence students ’ motivation and behavior.”
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“Based on the goal-setting theory developed by Locke and Latham (1990, 2002), studies on goal and treatment outcomes, and the treatment design of our program, a model of factors related to the process of goal setting that influenced treatment outcomes was constructed.”
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“Additionally, years of research on goal setting has revealed that it can have significant positive impact on learning performance (Locke and Latham 1990; Locke and Latham 2002).”
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Mainstreaming regenerative dynamics for sustainability
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“Positive reinforcement (and feedback) stimulates proactive behaviours and creativity for further improvements whereas avoiding a future catastrophe is a negative form of reinforcement, which is much less motivating 71 .”
Antecedents of Underemployment: Job Search of Skilled Immigrants in Canada
Guerrero, L., & Rothstein, M. G. (2011) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2011.00470.x · Cited by 73
Sailer, P., Wieber, F., Pröpster, K., Stoewer, S., Nischk, D., Volk, F., & Odenwald, M. (2015) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-015-0513-y · Cited by 60
“Thereby, our MCII brief intervention complements and extends other motivational intervention approaches addressing exercise in patients with schizophrenia that have been derived from Self-Determination Theory [17] and from Goal Setting Theory [36].”
BackgroundKhasraghi, H. J., & Aghaie, A. (2014) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2014.883551 · Cited by 60
“Goal-setting theory suggests that people adjust their perceptions on self-efficacy according to their prior performance and satisfaction levels (Locke and Latham 2002, Sun et al. 2012).”
BackgroundCollaborative Behavior and the Performance of Government Agencies
Whitford, A. B., Lee, S., Yun, T., & Jung, C. S. (2010) · International Public Management Journal · doi:10.1080/10967494.2010.529378 · Cited by 62
“One way is to focus employees’ attention and energy on specific goals (Locke and Latham 2002), but we recognize that clear and easily achievable goals could have a negative impact on performance (Schermerhorn, Hunt, and Osborn 2005).”
BackgroundRelational effects of relative performance information: The role of professional identity
Mahlendorf, M. D., Kleinschmit, F., & Perego, P. (2014) · Accounting Organizations and Society · doi:10.1016/j.aos.2014.05.001 · Cited by 52
West, R. L., Bagwell, D. K., & Dark-Freudeman, A. (2005) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.20.2.195 · Cited by 63
Motivating reflection about health within the family: the use of goal setting and tailored feedback
Colineau, N., & Paris, C. L. (2010) · User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction · doi:10.1007/s11257-010-9089-x · Cited by 59
“When Locke and Latham (2002) established the positive effect of goal setting on task”
BackgroundInfluentialPenningroth, S. L., & Scott, W. D. (2012) · The International Journal of Aging and Human Development · doi:10.2190/ag.74.2.a · Cited by 71
“The current findings imply that older adults might also differ in a variety of goal-related cognitive, affective, and behavioral processes (Bandura, 1997; Locke & Latham, 2002).”
BackgroundApostolakis, G. N., Kraanen, F., & van Dijk, G. (2016) · Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Finance · doi:10.1016/j.jbef.2016.06.001 · Cited by 61
Rauniar, R., Rawski, G., Morgan, S., & Mishra, S. (2019) · International Journal of Project Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijproman.2019.01.002 · Cited by 63
Gollwitzer, P. M., & Oettingen, G. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195399820.013.0013 · Cited by 80
Motivation to Learn in General Education Programs
Glynn, S. M., Aultman, L. P., & Owens, A. M. (2005) · The Journal of General Education · doi:10.1353/jge.2005.0021 · Cited by 184
van Gelder, J., de Vries, R. E., Frese, M. H., et al. (2007) · Journal of Small Business Management · doi:10.1111/j.1540-627x.2007.00219.x · Cited by 59
Bolívar, M. P. R., Galera, A. N., Subires, M. D. L., & Muñoz, L. A. (2018) · Accounting Auditing & Accountability Journal · doi:10.1108/aaaj-10-2016-2754 · Cited by 74
How entrepreneurial orientation can leverage innovation project portfolio management
Kock, A., & Gemünden, H. (2020) · R&D Management · doi:10.1111/radm.12423 · Cited by 56
“6 R&D Management 2020 line with goal setting theory positing that challenging and more specific goals lead to higher performance (Locke and Latham, 2002).”
BackgroundInfluentialKariv, D. (2008) · Journal of Enterprising Communities People and Places in the Global Economy · doi:10.1108/17506200810913890 · Cited by 65
Aligning Individual and Organizational Performance
Ayers, R. S. (2015) · Public Personnel Management · doi:10.1177/0091026015575178 · Cited by 58
“Goal setting theory has firmly established the impact between linking individuals’ tasks with organizational goals for achieving increased performance (Locke & Latham, 2002).”
BackgroundSchwepker, C. H., & Good, D. J. (2012) · The Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice · doi:10.2753/mtp1069-6679200406 · Cited by 55
“Despite the decades of research in goal-setting theory (Locke and Latham 1990, 2002), which suggests a relationship between goals and task performance, there is a need to understand how a goal in the form of a sales quota affects sales performance.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialPoortvliet, P. M., & Giebels, E. (2011) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2011.555080 · Cited by 61
“Also, there is no question that goal setting is a powerful and widely applicable technique to attain desirable task outcomes (Latham & Locke, 2006 ; Locke & Latham, 2002 ; Wegge & Haslam, 2005 ).”
MethodThe Effects of Job Insecurity on Satisfaction and Perceived Organizational Performance
Reisel, W., Chia, S.-L., Maloles, C., & Slocum, J. (2007) · Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies · doi:10.1177/1071791907308055 · Cited by 66
“Job insecurity is thus an indirect problem for organizations because it undermines the HRM system that effectuates persistence toward task accomplishment and achieving organizational goals (Locke & Latham, 2002).”
BackgroundMental contrasting turns positive feedback on creative potential into successful performance
Oettingen, G., Marquardt, M. K., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.03.008 · Cited by 62
“Thus high expectations of success (e.g., Ajzen, 1991; Bandura, 1997; Locke & Latham, 2002) are just a prerequisite for successful goal pursuit.”
BackgroundUsing Instructional Features to Enhance Demonstration-Based Training in Management Education
Grossman, R., Salas, E., Pavlas, D., & Rosen, M. A. (2012) · Academy of Management Learning and Education · doi:10.5465/amle.2011.0527 · Cited by 62
Self-Endangering Work Behavior
Dettmers, J., Deci, N., Baeriswyl, S., Berset, M., & Krause, A. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-32331-2_4 · Cited by 69
A Gender-Aware Study of Self-Leadership Strategies among High-Growth Entrepreneurs
Bendell, B. L., Sullivan, D. M., & Marvel, M. R. (2018) · Journal of Small Business Management · doi:10.1111/jsbm.12490 · Cited by 61
Students’ performance in blended learning: disciplinary difference and instructional design factors
Vo, M. H., Zhu, C., & Diep, A. N. (2020) · Journal of Computers in Education · doi:10.1007/s40692-020-00164-7 · Cited by 69
Metadata
- Authors
- Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P.
- Affiliations
- University of Maryland, College Park (US)
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 2002-09
- Volume
- 57
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 705-717
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- OpenAlex
- W4237356565
- Cited by
- 7,766
- References
- 131
- Citations by year
- 2026: 527 · 2025: 509 · 2024: 464 · 2023: 511 · 2022: 428 · 2021: 456 · 2020: 540 · 2019: 467 · 2018: 460 · 2017: 421 · 2016: 395 · 2015: 408 · 2014: 370 · 2013: 313 · 2012: 333
- FWCI
- 59.32
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Human Behavior and Motivation
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Keywords
- goal setting, task motivation, motivation theories, goal difficulty, goal specificity, feedback, task difficulty
- MeSH terms
- Goals, Humans, Motivation, Psychological Theory
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