Cited by 7,766Education, Achievement, and GiftednessHuman Behavior and MotivationBehavioral Health and Interventions

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Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey.

Locke, Edwin A., Latham, Gary P.·2002·American Psychologist

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Abstract

The authors summarize 35 years of empirical research on goal-setting theory, describing the core findings of the theory, the mechanisms by which goals operate, moderators of goal effects, the relation of goals and satisfaction, and the role of goals as mediators of incentives.

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BackgroundInfluential
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Background
Governments Should Play Games
Hassan, L. (2016) · Simulation & Gaming · doi:10.1177/1046878116683581 · Cited by 114
“One further intrinsic variable that influences motivation, engagement and behavioral change is purpose (Pink, 2009) as an expression of goal setting (Jung et al., 2010; Landers, Bauer, & Callan, 2015; Landers & Callan, 2011; Latham, 2003; Locke & Latham, 2002).”
Background
Design and Evaluation of a Pervasive Coaching and Gamification Platform for Young Diabetes Patients
Klaassen, R., Bul, K., den Akker, R. O., van der Burg, G. J., Kato, P. M., & Bitonto, P. D. (2018) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s18020402 · Cited by 109
“They are based on socio–psychological behaviour theories, e.g., Goal-Setting [54], Self-Determination Theory [55].”
Changing Behavior Using the Health Action Process Approach
Schwarzer, R., & Hamilton, K. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108677318.007 · Cited by 115
Successfully leaving work at work: The self-regulatory underpinnings of psychological detachment
Smit, B. W. (2016) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/joop.12137 · Cited by 98
Emotions and emotion regulation in undergraduate studying: examining students’ reports from a self-regulated learning perspective
Webster, E. A., & Hadwin, A. F. (2014) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2014.895292 · Cited by 121
“…taught how to develop accurate and complete task perceptions, set productive goals that are specific and limited to short-term study sessions (e.g. Locke & Latham, 2002), strategically choose and experiment with tactics to achieve those goals, monitor their progress and make adjustments to their…”
Background
Understanding for whom, under what conditions, and how group-based physical activity interventions are successful: a realist review
Harden, S. M., McEwan, D., Sylvester, B. D., Kaulius, M., Ruissen, G. R., Burke, S. M., Estabrooks, P. A., & Beauchamp, M. R. (2015) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-015-2270-8 · Cited by 111
“, principles from Barnes [2]), goal-setting theory (7 %; [42]), team-building model (5 %; [11]), transtheoretical model (5 %; [47]) and social ecological theory (5 %; [6]) and four additional guiding theoretical frameworks were cited once.”
Background
The influence of start-up motivation on entrepreneurial performance
Caliendo, M., Kritikos, A. S., & Stier, C. (2023) · Small Business Economics · doi:10.1007/s11187-022-00722-6 · Cited by 125
Development of Alive! (A Lifestyle Intervention Via Email), and Its Effect on Health-related Quality of Life, Presenteeism, and Other Behavioral Outcomes: Randomized Controlled Trial
Block, G., Sternfeld, B., Block, C., Block, T. J., Norris, J. C., Hopkins, D. R., Quesenberry, C. P., Husson, G., & Clancy, H. (2008) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.1112 · Cited by 104
“The behavioral strategies underlying Alive! include certain of the principles from the health belief model [46], the theory of reasoned action [47], social cognitive/social learning theories [48], goal-setting theory [49], social marketing [50], and the transtheoretical model [51], all derived from behavioral and cogn…”
Background
Performance Management Routines That Work? An Early Assessment of the GPRA Modernization Act
Moynihan, D. P., & Kroll, A. (2015) · Public Administration Review · doi:10.1111/puar.12434 · Cited by 107
When environmental messages should be assertive: examining the moderating role of effort investment
Baek, T. H., Yoon, S., & Kim, S. (2015) · International Journal of Advertising · doi:10.1080/02650487.2014.993513 · Cited by 98
“The expectancy-value theory of motivation explains that expectancy the belief that ‘effort’ will attain the outcomes or rewards (Locke and Latham 2002) plays a critical role in influencing subsequent attitude formation (Fishbein and Ajzen 1975; Yoon and Vargas 2010).”
Background
Mixed methods for mixed reality: understanding users’ avatar activities in virtual worlds
Feldon, D. F., & Kafai, Y. B. (2007) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-007-9081-2 · Cited by 102
“Research in academic motivation indicates that learning is more likely to occur when the target content is entailed by activities of personal and cultural value and relevance (for reviews, see Eccles and Wigfield 2002; Locke and Latham 2002).”
Background
Stress prevention through a time management training intervention: an experimental study
Häfner, A., Stock, A., Pinneker, L., & Ströhle, S. (2013) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2013.785065 · Cited by 118
“Training participants learned to set proximal, challenging, and specific goals and to implement feedback processes to monitor goal achievement according to recommendations by Locke and Latham (2002).”
BackgroundMethod
Using Goals to Motivate College Students: Theory and Evidence From Field Experiments
Clark, D., Gill, D. M., Prowse, V. L., & Rush, M. (2019) · The Review of Economics and Statistics · doi:10.1162/rest_a_00864 · Cited by 107
“discounting, McLeish and Oxoby (2007), Meier and Sprenger (2010) and Prince and Shawhan (2011) find that men are more present biased than women, while Tanaka et al. (2010) find no gender difference in present bias for rural Vietnamese (in Meier and Sprenger, 2010, when controls that include endogenous behavioral measu…”
The future of workplace commitment: key questions and directions
van Rossenberg, Y. G. T., Klein, H. J., Asplund, K., Bentein, K., Breitsohl, H., Cohen, A. G., Cross, D., Rodrigues, A. C. D. A., Duflot, V., Kilroy, S., et al. (2018) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2018.1443914 · Cited by 120
“Indeed, previous work shows a relationship between task performance and commitment (e. g. Klein et al., 2013; Locke & Latham, 2002).”
Toward a Work Motivation Conceptualization of Grit in Organizations
Jordan, S. L., Ferris, G. R., Hochwarter, W. A., & Wright, T. A. (2019) · Group & Organization Management · doi:10.1177/1059601119834093 · Cited by 121
Explaining and predicting perceived effectiveness and use continuance intention of a behaviour change support system for weight loss
Lehto, T., & B, H. O.-K. A. (2013) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2013.866162 · Cited by 114
“The systems boosts users’ self-efficacy Goal setting and task motivation (Locke and Latham 2002), task-technology fit (Goodhue and Thompson 1995), person–artefact–task (Finneran and Zhang 2003), self-efficacy theory (Compeau and Higgins 1995) Perceived credibility Perceived credibility encompasses…”
Background
Motivation
Bargh, J. A., Gollwitzer, P. M., & Oettingen, G. (2010) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470561119.socpsy001008 · Cited by 105
Perseverance strategies of enterprising individuals
van Gelderen, M. (2012) · International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research · doi:10.1108/13552551211268102 · Cited by 103
The politics of research impact: academic perceptions of the implications for research funding, motivation and quality
Chubb, J., & Reed, M. S. (2018) · British Politics · doi:10.1057/s41293-018-0077-9 · Cited by 111
#TrainingInHome - Home-based training during COVID-19 (SARS-COV2) pandemic: physical exercise and behavior-based approach
Neto, L. D. O., Elsangedy, H. M., Tavares, V. D. D. O., Teixeira, C. V. L. S., Behm, D. G., & Silva‐Grigoletto, M. E. D. (2020) · Revista Brasileira de Fisiologia do Exercício · doi:10.33233/rbfe.v19i2.4006 · Cited by 104
Why health expectations and hopes are different: the development of a conceptual model
Leung, K. K., Silvius, J. L., Pimlott, N., Dalziel, W. B., & Drummond, N. (2009) · Health Expectations · doi:10.1111/j.1369-7625.2009.00570.x · Cited by 105
A pilot study of self-regulation informed goal setting in people with traumatic brain injury
McPherson, K., Kayes, N. M., & Weatherall, M. (2009) · Clinical Rehabilitation · doi:10.1177/0269215509102980 · Cited by 103
Motivations: The Entrepreneurial Mind and Behavior
Carsrud, A. L., Brännback, M. E., Elfving, J., & Brandt, K. (2009) · International studies in entrepreneurship · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-0443-0_7 · Cited by 97
“The importance and impact of goals has gained a lot of attention in motivational research (see, for example, Locke and Latham, 2002; Bagozzi and Warshaw, 1990; 1992; Bay and Daniel, 2003).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Motivation and emotional transactions: where do we go from here?
Schutz, P. A., Rodgers, K. A., & Simcic, J. (2010) · Advances in motivation and achievement · doi:10.1108/s0749-7423(2010)000016b005 · Cited by 97
“specific, challenging and stated completion date) (Locke and Latham, 2002).”
Motivating Language Theory
Mayfield, J. R., & Mayfield, M. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-66930-4 · Cited by 124
The quest for knowledge transfer efficacy: blended teaching, online and in-class, with consideration of learning typologies for non-traditional and traditional students
Doorn, J. R. V., & Doorn, J. D. V. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00324 · Cited by 123
“…nontraditional students, respectively, on robust cognitive study skills (mnemonics, visual imagery, and word associations), goal-setting theories (Locke and Latham, 2002), and self-efficacy (Bandura and Locke, 2003) for enhancing knowledge transfer and achievement goals during their academic…”
Background

Authors: Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P.
Affiliations: University of Maryland, College Park (US)
ORCID: Locke, Edwin A.
Latham, Gary P.
Venue: American Psychologist
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2002-09
Volume: 57
Issue: 9
Pages: 705-717
ISSN: 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
1935-990X
DOI: 10.1037/0003-066x.57.9.705
OpenAlex: W4237356565
Cited by: 7,766
References: 131
Citations by year: 2026: 527 · 2025: 509 · 2024: 464 · 2023: 511 · 2022: 428 · 2021: 456 · 2020: 540 · 2019: 467 · 2018: 460 · 2017: 421 · 2016: 395 · 2015: 408 · 2014: 370 · 2013: 313 · 2012: 333
FWCI: 59.32
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Human Behavior and Motivation
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
Keywords: goal setting, task motivation, motivation theories, goal difficulty, goal specificity, feedback, task difficulty
MeSH terms: Goals, Humans, Motivation, Psychological Theory

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Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey.

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