Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey.

“…by the 26 BCTs include control theory (Carver & Scheier, 1998) and related goal theories (e.g., Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Gollwitzer, 1999; Locke & Latham, 2002), as well as operant conditioning (Skinner, 1974), theories of social comparison (e.g., Festinger, 1954), theoretical accounts…”

“No other theory of motivation has deeper or broader empirical support at the individual, group, and unit level (Landy & Becker, 1987; Locke & Latham, 1990, 2002 ).”

“The role of goals and self-efficacy as mediators of other motivators was also found in previous studies in which the individual was the level of analysis (Locke & Latham, 2002).”

“A core premise of goal-setting theory is that employees are more motivated to expend effort when they are focused on difficult, specific goals (for recent reviews, see Locke & Latham, 1990, 2002).”

“More generally, Locke and Latham (2002) suggested that positive feelings influence cognitive appraisals associated with setting challenging goals.”

“With respect to competence, when employees dedicate greater effort and persistence toward reaching an outcome that is important to them, they are more likely to achieve, and feel capable of achieving, the outcome (Bandura, 1977, 1997; Locke & Latham, 2002).”

“The latter serve as the mechanisms by which goal choices and efficacy beliefs influence behavior ( Locke & Latham, 1990, 2002 ).”

“Such persistence is one of the most powerful drivers of task performance (Locke & Latham, 2002).”

“(4) However, these theoretical predictions appear to contradict ideas presented within goal setting theory, proposed by Locke and Latham in the 1990s, which highlight the importance of specific detailed goals (psychological closeness) in increasing the likelihood of action.(26) Goal setting theory focuses on the devel…”

“For example, within a self-regulated learning context, individuals with higher (vs. lower) expectations set more challenging goals, developed more adaptive strategies for learning, persisted longer, and ultimately performed better (Locke & Latham, 2002; Sitzmann & Ely, 2011; Zimmerman, 2002).”

“…by directing attention and action, mobilizing energy expenditure or effort, prolonging effort over time (i.e., persistence), and motivating the individual to develop relevant strategies for goal attainment (Brown, 2005; Locke & Latham, 2002; Locke et al., 1981)—all behaviors necessary for transfer.”

“On the basis of these frameworks, it has been suggested that job resources lead directly to engagement (Conservation of Resources Theory; Hobfoll, 2002 ) or indirectly through, for instance, stimulating goal accomplishment (Goal Theory; Locke & Latham, 2002 ), enhancing employees’ self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977 ), or co…”

“This is supported by extensive research on goal-setting theory, which shows that having specific goals is a major factor for motivation and performance (Locke, Feren, McCaleb, Shaw, & Denny, 1980; Locke & Latham, 2002).”

“Entrepreneurs need to be able to check where they stand in relation to their goals so they can determine whether they need to make adjustments in their behavior in order to attain those goals (Lent and Brown 2006; Lent, Brown, and Hacket 1994; Locke and Latham 2002; Locke, Latham, and Erez 1988).”

“In I-O psychology, the performance implications of goal-setting are well documented (Locke & Latham, 2002).”

“That the automatic activation of attitudes leads directly to corresponding muscular readiness in adult humans is thus surprising only from the perspective that actions and behavior are always a function of conscious intent and guidance (e.g., Bandura, 1986; Locke & Latham, 2002).”

“For example, goal-setting theory (Locke & Latham, 2002), motivational intensity theory (Brehm & Self, 1989), social facilitation theory (Zajonc, 1965), and test 12 Although we disagree with Brophy’s call to “move on” from performance goals, our focus on mechanism as a new direction is partially…”

“Schemas are thought to develop through experiences (Fiske & Taylor, 2007), and they are further ingrained by goals and rewards relevant to those experiences (Locke & Latham, 2002).”

“Third, the cognitive revolution had begun to dominate organizational scholarship, leaving work design researchers more interested in studying the psychological processes inside employees’ heads than the social structures that created bonds between them (Locke & Latham, 2002 ).”

“Importantly, goal setting can facilitate transfer by directing attention, stimulating action, increasing persistence and prompting trainees to utilize newly acquired knowledge and abilities (Locke & Latham, 2002).”

“This joint effect of feedback and goals should not be surprising because goal-setting researchers (Locke & Latham, 2002) have argued that the strongest effects of goal-setting interventions on performance are obtained in the presence of feedback.”

“This has parallels in to the finding that fear can lead to higher performance for easy tasks (e.g. Mueller 1992), and in the goal-setting theory, the strongest effects of external standards on performance were found for easy tasks (e.g. when skill exceeds difficulty; Locke and Latham 2002).”

“However, because assigned goals have their effect on performance through self-set goals, the basic findings in this literature hold for both self-set and assigned goals (e.g., Locke & Latham, 1990, 2002).”

“In fact, Loewenstein (1992) observes that there has long been an active attempt to erase any psychological content from economics. But, more recently, there has been some integration, in the form of behavioral economics. Traditional economic theory, essentially expectancy theory, is being supplemented with some of the…”

“Goals should be challenging but not outside the range of students’ capabilities [15].”

“These strategies are consistent with current motivation theories (Hackman & Oldham, 1980; Locke & Latham, 2002), but more research is needed to examine how the design and implementation of gamification systems impact motivation, especially over the long term.”

“This finding supports previous literature regarding the importance of goal specificity [65].”

“In particular, meaning is now viewed as an essential contributor to overall wellbeing that is separate from, but positively correlated with, other facets of wellbeing (Chamberlain & Zika, 1992; King, et al., 2006; Locke & Latham, 2002; Seligman, 2002).”

“For example, work on organizational learning trumpets the merits of learning lessons from the past to achieve more effective performance (Levitt & March, 1988).”

“Similarly, A. Howard (personal communication) found that, in a reanalysis of her twentyfive-year AT&T study with Bray, conscious goals for promotion had no relationship with a set of projective measures that had been designed by McClelland to predict managerial progress (see Locke & Latham, 2002 ).”

“…activities (e.g., goalsetting, self-monitoring) that give rise to improved enactment of health protective behaviors (Bandura, 1997; Carver & Scheier, 1998; Locke & Latham, 2002), and increasing focus on self-regulatory processes in more recent models of health behavior (e.g., Schwarzer, 2001).”

“…empowerment (b) Motivational Job design (Hackman & Oldham, 1976), Self-determination theory and behavior regulation (Deci & Ryan, 2000), Goalsetting (Locke & Latham, 2002) Job control, meaningful work, role overload, role conflict, role ambiguity, task variability, fulfillment of basic…”

“jectives that students consciously strive to attain [45] while using game elements to direct”

“It also allows for the establishment of specific, challenging action plans and goals (Locke & Latham, 1990), which in turn affect motivational direction, intensity, and persistence (Locke & Latham, 2002).”

“Countless studies (see Locke & Latham, 2002, 2006) find that specific, challenging goals motivate performance far better than “do your best” exhortations.”

“Empirical research regarding motivation has been focused on young people and the factor of age has often played only a minor or confounder role in these studies (see, for example, Eerde & Thierry, 1996; Latham & Steele, 1983; Locke & Latham, 2002; Wegge & Haslam, 2005).”

“…et al. (1983) Goal setting Specific, difficult task goals produce higher commitment and performance than vague goals that are easy to attain Locke and Latham (1990, 2002) Implicit theories of intelligence Students’ beliefs about whether intelligence is fixed (i.e., entity mindset) or is…”

“Suffice it to state here that goal setting affects performance in laboratory, simulated, and organizational settings regardless of whether the individual, group, or (small) organization (or an organizational unit) is the level of analysis (e.g., Locke & Latham, 2002; Weldon, Jehn, & Pradhem, 1991).”

“Designers of persuasive technologies often draw from behavioral theories such as Goal-Setting Theory [12] or the Transtheoretical Model of Behavior Change [16].”

“The starting point of an action is the formation of a goal intention (Bird, 1988; Locke & Latham, 2002).”

“By contrast, more complex tasks open the door for ability to play a more central role (Locke & Latham, 2002; Schmidt & Hunter, 2004), potentially suppressing performance differences caused by variations in leader extraversion and employee proactivity.”

“Goal-setting theory explains that individuals and teams are more likely to attain what they in-tently and specifically focus on because they develop strategies for realizing their target (Locke & Latham, 2002).”

“Similarly, although the relationship between goal setting and performance is moderated by several factors (Locke and Latham, 2002), goal setting theory has proved to be among the most robust and useful theories in organizational science (Neubert, 1998).”

“Locke and Latham (1990, 2002), among others, have demonstrated that goal setting improves performance.”

“Finally, Dawis (2005) provides suggestions for how self-change and environmental change can be accomplished, and a large body of literature can be called on to assist in goal-setting and facilitation efforts (e.g., Locke & Latham, 2002).”

“Specifically, the theoretical logic underlying this relationship is in accord with the Harvard policy model (Andrews 1980), synoptic planning theory (Dror 1983), and goal-setting theory (Locke and Latham 2002).”

“Locke and Latham (2002) argued that goals affect motivation and performance through four mechanisms.”

“Pioneer research in goal setting identified feelings of energisation as paramount to promoting goal-directed behaviour, (Locke & Latham, 2002).”

“Finally, our studies focused narrowly on persistence as a behavioral indicator of motivation, and our results may not generalize to other behavioral indicators of motivation, such as eVort, speed, eYciency, planning, and task strategies (e.g., Locke, 1991; Locke & Latham, 2002 ).”

“In doing so, many theories of motivation (Locke & Latham, 2002; Steel & K€onig, 2006; Steers et al., 2004) should be applied to make specific predictions about the effect of excitement and enjoyment in VRR programs.”

“This finding is supported by research in organizational psychology that specific, difficult goals are associated with higher levels of effort and performance (Locke & Latham, 2002).”

“Important theories of work motivation approach it as a unitary concept that solely varies in strength but not in kind (e.g., Locke & Latham, 2002; Vroom, 1964).”

“These, in turn, affect amount of effort (Paths g and h [cf. Klein et al., 1999;Locke & Latham, 1990,2002]).”