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Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey.
Abstract
The authors summarize 35 years of empirical research on goal-setting theory, describing the core findings of the theory, the mechanisms by which goals operate, moderators of goal effects, the relation of goals and satisfaction, and the role of goals as mediators of incentives.
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“These mutual goals direct attention and effort, serve an energizing function, contribute to persistence, and spark action indirectly by leading to interests, discoveries, and use of knowledge, strategies, and skills (Locke & Latham, 2002).”
From The Principles of Strengths-Based Education (2009) · cites this paper as Locke & Latham, 2002
In the citing paper
“Unrealistic expectations surrounding weight changes can lead to discouragement [67].”
From Barriers and facilitators to diet, physical activity and lifestyle behavior intervention adherence: a qualitative systematic review of the literature (2023) · cites this paper as [67]
In the citing paper
“Locke and Latham (2002) argue that learning goals are especially important for driving self-regulated attention and motivation.”
From Summarise, elaborate, try again: exploring the effect of feedback literacy on AI-enhanced essay writing (2026) · cites this paper as Locke and Latham (2002)
In the citing paper
“goal setting is generally acknowledged as an essential treatment intervention for procrastination because insufficient or inadequate goals often impair problem solving and lower motivation (Locke & Latham, 2002).”
From Understanding and Treating Procrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure (2014) · cites this paper as Locke & Latham, 2002
In the citing paper
“goal setting is generally acknowledged as an essential treatment intervention for procrastination because insufficient or inadequate goals often impair problem solving and lower motivation (Locke & Latham, 2002).”
From Understanding and Treating Procrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure (2014) · cites this paper as Locke & Latham, 2002
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“This is largely because goals increase the effort directed toward goal attainment and performance (Locke & Latham, 2002; Pinder, 1998).”
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“Goal setting research has investigated the efficiency of various types of goals in relation to goal achievement and self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977; Locke, 1968; Locke & Latham, 1990, 2002).”
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“According to Locke and Latham (2002), Mace (1935) was the first to publish any work on the effects of goals on task performance; and they then founded their own research work on the published works of researchers such as Atkinson in 1958 who reported a curvilinear relationship between effort and…”
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“This has been done to avoid the appearance of goal setting (Locke, 2001; Locke & Latham, 2002).”
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“The COACH method is an individually tailored exercise counseling method based on the Motivational Interviewing Technique and goal-setting theory, both considered to be effective instruments for behavioral modification [45, 46].”
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“…a positive stressor that triggers motivation for greater effort and the search for creative solutions to ensure task performance and attain rewards (Locke & Latham, 2002; Shantz & Latham, 2011), it nevertheless may also increase strain that affects employee psychological well-being (Kanfer & Chen,…”
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“This is problematic because results in the organizational literature suggest that ‘do your best’ goals lead to lower performance than specific outcome goals (see Locke and Latham 2002).”
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“While this finding is consistent with goal setting theory, which suggests that a very difficult goal leads to decreased motivation for a given task [50, 51, 55], it is counterintuitive from the sunk cost perspective, which suggests that the relative magnitude of sunk cost rather than the absolute magnitude causes esca…”
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“Since a mastery goal indicates a strong desire to perform challenging tasks, it directs attention and effort toward goal-relevant activities such as problem solving and developing alternative strategies when faced with difficult tasks (Locke and Latham, 2002).”
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“…norms become the standard frame of refer- Summary of Findings and Implications for Practice Source Finding Application Goal Setting and Participation Locke & Latham (2002) Participation in goal setting does not affect Be sure goals are challenging, whether performance when goal difficulty is held…”
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Self-citationImmoral goals: how goal setting may lead to unethical behavior
Ordóñez, L. D., & Welsh, D. T. (2015) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.06.001 · Cited by 77
“Introduction Decades of research in goal setting [1] has shown that setting and committing to specific, challenging goals leads people to perform tasks better and persist longer in the lab and in field settings.”
BackgroundEmployees' motivational orientation and well‐being at work: A person‐oriented approach
Salmela‐Aro, K., & Nurmi, J. (2004) · Journal of Organizational Change Management · doi:10.1108/09534810410554498 · Cited by 72
Motivating Students in Classrooms
Brophy, J. (2010) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-044894-7.00613-8 · Cited by 75
Data-based decision making for instructional improvement in primary education
Gelderblom, G., Schildkamp, K., Pieters, J., & Ehren, M. (2016) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2016.07.004 · Cited by 74
“Feedback should lead to interventions which should be aimed at reducing this divide, and will improve learning outcomes (Hattie, 2009; Kluger & DeNisi, 1998; Locke & Latham, 2002).”
BackgroundInfluentialSun, M. M. C., Rith‐Najarian, L., Williamson, T. J., & Chorpita, B. F. (2018) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2018.1443459 · Cited by 72
“Theory suggests that dissatisfaction from unmet goals increases goal-directed effort (Locke & Latham, 1990, 2002), and through repeatedly rewarded effort, goal setting is posited to increase youth self-efficacy (Bandura, 1989; Schunk, 1990).”
BackgroundGoal Setting, Academic Reminders, and College Success: A Large-Scale Field Experiment
Dobronyi, C., Oreopoulos, P., & Petronijevic, U. (2019) · Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness · doi:10.1080/19345747.2018.1517849 · Cited by 73
“It is believed that people regulate their lives through meaningful thought (Bandura, 1997; Locke & Latham, 2002).”
InfluentialHuy, P. Q., & Phuc, V. K. (2020) · Cogent Business & Management · doi:10.1080/23311975.2020.1717718 · Cited by 87
“Additionally, the combination of goals and feedbackwill lead to higher performance rather than fromgoals or feedback separately (Locke & Latham, 2002).”
BackgroundInfluentialSchimschal, S. E., Visentin, D. C., Kornhaber, R. A., & Cleary, M. L. (2020) · Issues in Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1080/01612840.2020.1814913 · Cited by 85
“Likewise, intrinsically motivated individuals are more likely to remain committed to their goals (Locke & Latham, 2002).”
BackgroundJia, C., Hew, K. F., Du, J., & Li, L. (2022) · The Internet and Higher Education · doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2022.100878 · Cited by 85
Gärling, T., Gamble, A., Connolly, F. F., & Hjerm, M. (2015) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-015-9670-4 · Cited by 73
Managing knowledge exchange and identification in age diverse teams
Ellwart, T., Bundgens, S., & Rack, O. (2013) · Journal of Managerial Psychology · doi:10.1108/jmp-06-2013-0181 · Cited by 75
“There is numerous research and theory on the effects of specifically formulated goals on behaviors, such as goal setting theory (Locke and Latham, 2002), action regulation (Frese and Zapf, 1994; Hacker, 2003) and leadership (Fleishman and Zaccaro, 1992; Weinkauf and Hoegl, 2002).”
BackgroundBarriers to a healthy lifestyle among obese adolescents: a qualitative study from Iran
Amiri, P., Ghofranipour, F. F., Ahmadi, F., Hosseinpanah, F., Montazeri, A., Jalali‐Farahani, S., & Rastegarpour, A. (2010) · International Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1007/s00038-010-0119-6 · Cited by 66
“The inhibitive role of exaggerated unrealistic goals has also been demonstrated in previous studies (Locke and Latham 2002; Wadden et al. 2003).”
Resultde Ridder, D. T. D., de Vet, E., Stok, F. M., Adriaanse, M. A., & de Wit, J. B. F. (2012) · Health Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/17437199.2012.706987 · Cited by 69
Dishman, R. K., Vandenberg, R. J., Motl, R. W., Wilson, M. G., & DeJoy, D. M. (2009) · Health Education Research · doi:10.1093/her/cyp042 · Cited by 66
Pham, N. T. P., Segers, M., & Gijselaers, W. (2013) · International Journal of Training and Development · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2419.2012.00417.x · Cited by 70
Tarbetsky, A. L., Collie, R. J., & Martin, A. J. (2016) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2016.01.002 · Cited by 77
A Framework for Facilitating Experiential Learning
Matsuo, M. (2015) · Human Resource Development Review · doi:10.1177/1534484315598087 · Cited by 78
“Locke and Latham (2002) also argued that there is a positive, linear function in that the highest or most difficult goals produced the highest levels of effort and performance.”
Metadata
- Authors
- Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P.
- Affiliations
- University of Maryland, College Park (US)
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 2002-09
- Volume
- 57
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 705-717
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- OpenAlex
- W4237356565
- Cited by
- 7,766
- References
- 131
- Citations by year
- 2026: 527 · 2025: 509 · 2024: 464 · 2023: 511 · 2022: 428 · 2021: 456 · 2020: 540 · 2019: 467 · 2018: 460 · 2017: 421 · 2016: 395 · 2015: 408 · 2014: 370 · 2013: 313 · 2012: 333
- FWCI
- 59.32
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Human Behavior and Motivation
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Keywords
- goal setting, task motivation, motivation theories, goal difficulty, goal specificity, feedback, task difficulty
- MeSH terms
- Goals, Humans, Motivation, Psychological Theory
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Data sources
Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.
Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).
Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.
