The DOI matches its Crossref record; 69 of the 70 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach
Abstract
In this article, we provide guidance for substantive researchers on the use of structural equation modeling in practice for theory testing and development. We present a comprehensive, two-step modeling approach that employs a series of nested models and sequential chi-square difference tests. We discuss the comparative advantages of this approach over a one-step approach. Considerations in specification, assessment of fit, and respecification of measurement models using confirmatory factor analysis are reviewed. As background to the two-step approach, the distinction between exploratory and confirmatory analysis, the distinction between complementary approaches for theory testing versus predictive application, and some developments in estimation methods also are discussed.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“When the 95% CI for the correlation between two constructs does not include 1.0, this provides evidence of discriminant validity for the two constructs involved.”
From Reporting reliability, convergent and discriminant validity with structural equation modeling: A review and best-practice recommendations (2024) · cites this paper as Anderson & Gerbing, 1988
In the citing paper
“Unidimensionality requires no cross-loaded indicator, a condition for assigning meaning to a latent construct (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988).”
From Reporting reliability, convergent and discriminant validity with structural equation modeling: A review and best-practice recommendations (2024) · cites this paper as Anderson & Gerbing, 1988
In the citing paper
“In addition to establishing convergent validity, discriminant validity requires that each indicator loads uniquely on only one construct.”
From Reporting reliability, convergent and discriminant validity with structural equation modeling: A review and best-practice recommendations (2024) · cites this paper as Anderson & Gerbing, 1988
In the citing paper
“First proposed by Jöreskog (1971), with subsequent recommendations by Bagozzi and Phillips (1982, p. 476) and by Anderson and Gerbing (1988, p. 416), this is the most widely-used approach to evaluate discriminant validity.”
From Reporting reliability, convergent and discriminant validity with structural equation modeling: A review and best-practice recommendations (2024) · cites this paper as Anderson & Gerbing, 1988
In the citing paper
“While this represents a suitable minimum requirement for discriminant validity, it is insufficient because it does not guarantee two constructs are distinct”
From Reporting reliability, convergent and discriminant validity with structural equation modeling: A review and best-practice recommendations (2024) · cites this paper as Anderson & Gerbing, 1988
In the citing paper
“We aim to cover current and potential users of VUI, which is a commonly used and valid way to investigate users’ adoption intention of specific technologies [91,98].”
From The Investigation of Adoption of Voice-User Interface (VUI) in Smart Home Systems among Chinese Older Adults (2022) · cites this paper as [98]
In the citing paper
“Data were analyzed using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) in AMOS 28 following the two-step approach (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988).”
From Balancing Affective Engagement and Cognitive Load in Generative-AI-Based Learning: Empathy, Immersion, and Emotional Design in Design Education (2025) · cites this paper as Anderson & Gerbing, 1988
In the citing paper
“Further, our measurement model exhibits convergent validity since each indicator loads significantly on the construct they were supposed to represent, which indicates minimal cross-loadings, and establishes convergent validity (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988).”
From Influence of need for affiliation on small business customer loyalty (2025) · cites this paper as Anderson & Gerbing, 1988
In the citing paper
“The reliability and the convergent validity were confirmed, as all five factors reached construct reliabilities (CRs) exceeding the generally recommended 0.70 threshold [31] and (b) the average variances extracted (AVE) exceeding the suggested 0.50 threshold [33], indicating that more than 50% of a factor's variance is due to its measurement items.”
In the citing paper
“Before testing the hypotheses, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was employed to verify the reliability of the constructs (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988).”
From Digital government transformation: A structural equation modelling analysis of driving and impeding factors (2021) · cites this paper as Anderson & Gerbing, 1988
In the citing paper
“The nested model comparison (chi-square difference test, Anderson and Gerbing 1988) supported the discriminant validity, and square root of average variance extracted (AVE) for each of the constructs was substantially larger than the correlation between these two constructs.”
From Trust, Satisfaction, and Online Repurchase Intention: The Moderating Role of Perceived Effectiveness of E-Commerce Institutional Mechanisms1 (2014) · cites this paper as Anderson and Gerbing 1988
In the citing paper
“The nested model comparison (chi-square difference test, Anderson and Gerbing 1988) supported the discriminant validity, and square root of average variance extracted (AVE) for each of the constructs was substantially larger than the correlation between these two constructs.”
From Trust, Satisfaction, and Online Repurchase Intention: The Moderating Role of Perceived Effectiveness of E-Commerce Institutional Mechanisms1 (2014) · cites this paper as Anderson and Gerbing 1988
In the citing paper
“First, through chi-square difference test (Anderson et al 1988; Joreskog 1993), it was confirmed that correlations between each pair of constructs were significantly different from 'unity' (i.e. 1.0).”
From Trust, Satisfaction, and Online Repurchase Intention: The Moderating Role of Perceived Effectiveness of E-Commerce Institutional Mechanisms1 (2014) · cites this paper as Anderson et al 1988
In the citing paper
“Due to the high amount of the observed variables in this study (altogether 57), we could not fully follow the two-step approach suggested by Anderson and Gerbing (1988)”
From Job demands–resources model in the context of recovery: Testing recovery experiences as mediators (2011) · cites this paper as Anderson and Gerbing, 1988
Citations
Cites
Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures.
Bentler, P. M., & Bonett, D. G. (1980) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.88.3.588 · Cited by 20,015
Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix.
Campbell, D. T., & Fiske, D. W. (1959) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0046016 · Cited by 17,116
Psychometric theory (2nd ed.).
Sitgreaves, R. (1979) · Contemporary Psychology · doi:10.1037/018882 · Cited by 14,384
Construct validity in psychological tests.
Cronbach, L. J., & Meehl, P. E. (1955) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0040957 · Cited by 11,195
Harman, H. H. (1960) · Cited by 5,148
Two Structural Equation Models: LISREL and PLS Applied to Consumer Exit-Voice Theory
Fornell, C., & Bookstein, F. L. (1982) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.2307/3151718 · Cited by 4,645
Kmenta, J. (1997) · University of Michigan Press eBooks · doi:10.3998/mpub.15701 · Cited by 3,240
A leisurely look at the bootstrap, the jackknife, and cross-validation
Efron, B., & Gong, G. (1983) · The American Statistician · doi:10.1080/00031305.1983.10483087 · Cited by 3,229
The Scientific Use of Factor Analysis in Behavioral and Life Sciences
Cattell, R. B. (1978) · doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-2262-7 · Cited by 2,165
Factor Analysis as a Statistical Method.
Browne, M. W., Lawley, D., & Maxwell, A. E. (1964) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series D (The Statistician) · doi:10.2307/2986693 · Cited by 2,067
Cited by
Sorted by citations
A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling
Henseler, J., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2015) · Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science · doi:10.1007/s11747-014-0403-8 · Cited by 38,459
Pls-Sem: indeed a silver bullet
Hair, J. F., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2011) · Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice · doi:10.2753/mtp1069-6679190202 · Cited by 21,631
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 · Cited by 15,798
The commitment-trust theory of relationship marketing
Morgan, R. M., & Hunt, S. D. (1994) · Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1177/002224299405800302 · Cited by 22,355
Self-rated health and mortality: a review of twenty-seven community studies.
Idler, E. L., & Benyamini, Y. (1997) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.2307/2955359 · Cited by 8,598
Vandenberg, R. J., & Lance, C. E. (2000) · Organizational Research Methods · doi:10.1177/109442810031002 · Cited by 7,997
Affect and Cognition Based Trust as Foundations for Interpersonal Cooperation in Organizations
McAllister, D. J. (1995) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.2307/256727 · Cited by 7,346
Chin, W. W., Marcolin, B. L., & Newsted, P. R. (2003) · Information Systems Research · doi:10.1287/isre.14.2.189.16018 · Cited by 6,479
SOCIAL CAPITAL AND VALUE CREATION: THE ROLE OF INTRAFIRM NETWORKS.
Tsai, W., & Ghoshal, S. (1998) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.2307/257085 · Cited by 6,035
An updated paradigm for scale development incorporating unidimensionality and its assessment
Gerbing, D. W., & Anderson, J. C. (1988) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1177/002224378802500207 · Cited by 6,293
Self-citationOn the dimensionality of organizational justice: a construct validation of a measure.
Colquitt, J. (2001) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.86.3.386 · Cited by 6,043
Developing and validating trust measures for e-commerce: an integrative typology
McKnight, D. H., Choudhury, V., & Kacmar, C. (2002) · Information Systems Research · doi:10.1287/isre.13.3.334.81 · Cited by 5,550
A Model of Distributor Firm and Manufacturer Firm Working Partnerships
Anderson, J. C., & Narus, J. A. (1990) · Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1177/002224299005400103 · Cited by 5,826
Self-citationPrinciples and practice in reporting structural equation analyses.
McDonald, R. P., & Ho, M.-H. R. (2002) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.7.1.64 · Cited by 4,734
Bock, Zmud, R. W., Kim, Y., & Lee, J.-N. (2005) · MIS Quarterly · doi:10.2307/25148669 · Cited by 4,474
Cronin, J. J., Brady, M. K., & Hult, G. T. M. (2000) · Journal of Retailing · doi:10.1016/s0022-4359(00)00028-2 · Cited by 6,398
Zaheer, A., McEvily, B., & Perrone, V. (1998) · Organization Science · doi:10.1287/orsc.9.2.141 · Cited by 4,179
Byrne, B. M., Shavelson, R. J., & Muthén, B. (1989) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.105.3.456 · Cited by 4,105
Development and validation of work–family conflict and family–work conflict scales
Netemeyer, R. G., Boles, J. S., & McMurrian, R. (1996) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.81.4.400 · Cited by 3,864
PERCEIVED ORGANIZATIONAL SUPPORT AND LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE: A SOCIAL EXCHANGE PERSPECTIVE.
WAYNE, S. J., Shore, L. M., & Liden, R. C. (1997) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.2307/257021 · Cited by 3,930
Some New Thoughts on Conceptualizing Perceived Service Quality: A Hierarchical Approach
Brady, M. K., & Cronin, J. J. (2001) · Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1509/jmkg.65.3.34.18334 · Cited by 3,625
Diamantopoulos, A., & Siguaw, J. A. (2006) · British Journal of Management · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8551.2006.00500.x · Cited by 3,410
Yoon, Y., & Uysal, M. (2003) · Tourism Management · doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2003.08.016 · Cited by 3,694
An Examination of Selected Marketing Mix Elements and Brand Equity
Yoo, B., Donthu, N., & Lee, S. (2000) · Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science · doi:10.1177/0092070300282002 · Cited by 3,612
The impact of supply chain integration on performance: A contingency and configuration approach
Flynn, B. B., Huo, B., & Zhao, X. (2010) · Journal of Operations Management · doi:10.1016/j.jom.2009.06.001 · Cited by 3,310
Hedonic and utilitarian motivations for online retail shopping behavior
Childers, T. L., Carr, C. L., Peck, J., & Carson, S. (2001) · Journal of Retailing · doi:10.1016/s0022-4359(01)00056-2 · Cited by 3,219
Measuring the Customer Experience in Online Environments: A Structural Modeling Approach
Novak, T. P., Hoffman, D. L., & Yung, Y. (2000) · Marketing Science · doi:10.1287/mksc.19.1.22.15184 · Cited by 3,201
Chiu, C., Hsu, M., & Wang, E. T. G. (2006) · Decision Support Systems · doi:10.1016/j.dss.2006.04.001 · Cited by 3,330
Internet Users' Information Privacy Concerns (IUIPC): The Construct, the Scale, and a Causal Model
Malhotra, N. K., Kim, S. S., & Agarwal, J. (2004) · Information Systems Research · doi:10.1287/isre.1040.0032 · Cited by 3,173
MacKenzie, S. B., Podsakoff, P. M., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2011) · MIS Quarterly · doi:10.2307/23044045 · Cited by 3,165
Development of a measure of workplace deviance.
Bennett, R. J., & Robinson, S. L. (2000) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.85.3.349 · Cited by 3,084
Zhang, X., & Bartol, K. M. (2010) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2010.48037118 · Cited by 3,046
Avolio, B. J., Bass, B. M., & Jung, D. I. (1999) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1348/096317999166789 · Cited by 3,034
Developing and validating a multidimensional consumer-based brand equity scale
Yoo, B., & Donthu, N. (2001) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/s0148-2963(99)00098-3 · Cited by 3,067
The self-importance of moral identity
Aquino, K., & Reed, A. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.6.1423 · Cited by 3,522
Validation Guidelines for IS Positivist Research
Straub, D., & Gefen, D. (2004) · Communications of the Association for Information Systems · doi:10.17705/1cais.01324 · Cited by 2,797
The Measurement of Independent and Interdependent Self-Construals
Singelis, T. M. (1994) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167294205014 · Cited by 3,605
A Brief Guide to Structural Equation Modeling
Weston, R., & Gore, P. A. (2006) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/0011000006286345 · Cited by 2,718
The Predictive Validity of Multiple-Item versus Single-Item Measures of the Same Constructs
Bergkvist, L., & Rossiter, J. R. (2007) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1509/jmkr.44.2.175 · Cited by 3,107
An Extended Privacy Calculus Model for E-Commerce Transactions
Dinev, T., & Hart, P. (2006) · Information Systems Research · doi:10.1287/isre.1060.0080 · Cited by 2,640
SOCIAL CAPITAL, KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION, AND KNOWLEDGE EXPLOITATION IN YOUNG TECHNOLOGY-BASED FIRMS
Yli-Renko, H., Autio, E., & Sapienza, H. J. (2001) · Strategic Management Journal · doi:10.1002/smj.183 · Cited by 2,841
Corporate Social Responsibility, Customer Satisfaction, and Market Value
Luo, X., & Bhattacharya, C. B. (2006) · Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1509/jmkg.70.4.001 · Cited by 3,439
Applications of structural equation modeling in marketing and consumer research: A review
Baumgartner, H., & Homburg, C. (1996) · International Journal of Research in Marketing · doi:10.1016/0167-8116(95)00038-0 · Cited by 2,585
\nThe use of partial least squares path modeling in international marketing
Henseler, J., Ringle, C. M., & Sinkovics, R. R. (2009) · Radboud Repository (Radboud University) · doi:10.1108/s1474-7979(2009)0000020014 · Cited by 12,535
Building Effective Online Marketplaces with Institution-Based Trust
Pavlou, P. A., & Gefen, D. (2004) · Information Systems Research · doi:10.1287/isre.1040.0015 · Cited by 2,516
Niehoff, B. P., & Moorman, R. H. (1993) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.2307/256591 · Cited by 2,484
Kim, A. J., & Ko, E. (2011) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2011.10.014 · Cited by 3,115
Big data analytics and firm performance: Effects of dynamic capabilities
Wamba, S. F., Gunasekaran, A., Akter, S., Ren, S. J.-F., Dubey, R., & Childe, S. J. (2017) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2016.08.009 · Cited by 2,474
Towards a theory of supply chain management: the constructs and measurements
Chen, I. J., & Paulraj, A. (2004) · Journal of Operations Management · doi:10.1016/j.jom.2003.12.007 · Cited by 2,501
The relations among inhibition and interference control functions: A latent-variable analysis.
Friedman, N. P., & Miyake, A. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.133.1.101 · Cited by 2,309
Hennig-Thurau, T., Gwinner, K. P., & Gremler, D. D. (2002) · Journal of Service Research · doi:10.1177/1094670502004003006 · Cited by 2,301
eTailQ: dimensionalizing, measuring and predicting etail quality
Wolfinbarger, M., & Gilly, M. C. (2003) · Journal of Retailing · doi:10.1016/s0022-4359(03)00034-4 · Cited by 2,340
An Examination of the Nature of Trust in Buyer-Seller Relationships
Doney, P. M., & Cannon, J. P. (1997) · Journal of Marketing · doi:10.2307/1251829 · Cited by 6,822
Predicting green product consumption using theory of planned behavior and reasoned action
Paul, J., Modi, A., & Patel, J. (2016) · Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services · doi:10.1016/j.jretconser.2015.11.006 · Cited by 2,399
Cheung, G. W., Cooper-Thomas, H. D., Lau, R. S., & Wang, L. C. (2024) · Asia Pacific Journal of Management · doi:10.1007/s10490-023-09871-y · Cited by 2,262
“First proposed by Jöreskog (1971), with subsequent recommendations by Bagozzi and Phillips (1982, p. 476) and by Anderson and Gerbing (1988, p. 416), this is the most widely-used approach to evaluate discriminant validity.”
InfluentialRelationship Quality in Services Selling: An Interpersonal Influence Perspective
Crosby, L. A., Evans, K. R., & Cowles, D. (1990) · Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1177/002224299005400306 · Cited by 4,763
Mathwick, C., Malhotra, N. K., & Rigdon, E. E. (2001) · Journal of Retailing · doi:10.1016/s0022-4359(00)00045-2 · Cited by 2,304
Harrison McKnight, D., Choudhury, V., & Kacmar, C. (2002) · The Journal of Strategic Information Systems · doi:10.1016/s0963-8687(02)00020-3 · Cited by 2,164
Li, S., Ragu-Nathan, B. S., Ragu‐Nathan, T. S., & Rao, S. S. (2004) · Omega · doi:10.1016/j.omega.2004.08.002 · Cited by 2,333
Lubatkin, M., Simsek, Z., Ling, Y., & Veiga, J. F. (2006) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206306290712 · Cited by 2,230
An empirical assessment of the SERVQUAL scale
Babakus, E., & Boller, G. W. (1992) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/0148-2963(92)90022-4 · Cited by 2,178
Discriminant validity testing in marketing: an analysis, causes for concern, and proposed remedies
Voorhees, C. M., Brady, M. K., Calantone, R., & Ramirez, E. (2016) · Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science · doi:10.1007/s11747-015-0455-4 · Cited by 2,111
The Different Roles of Satisfaction, Trust, and Commitment in Customer Relationships
Garbarino, E., & Johnson, M. S. (1999) · Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1177/002224299906300205 · Cited by 4,899
Masterson, S. S., Lewis, K., Goldman, B. M., & Taylor, M. S. (2000) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.2307/1556364 · Cited by 2,085
CHRISTIAN, M. S., GARZA, A. S., & SLAUGHTER, J. E. (2011) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2010.01203.x · Cited by 2,903
Determinants of consumer engagement in electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM) in social networking sites
Chu, S.-C., & Kim, Y. (2011) · International Journal of Advertising · doi:10.2501/ija-30-1-047-075 · Cited by 2,311
Innovativeness: Its antecedents and impact on business performance
Hult, G. T. M., Hurley, R. F., & Knight, G. A. (2004) · Industrial Marketing Management · doi:10.1016/j.indmarman.2003.08.015 · Cited by 2,053
The Sources of Four Commonly Reported Cutoff Criteria: What Did They Really Say?
Lance, C. E., Butts, M. M., & Michels, L. C. (2006) · Organizational Research Methods · doi:10.1177/1094428105284919 · Cited by 2,053
Customer perceived value, satisfaction, and loyalty: The role of switching costs
Yang, Z., & Peterson, R. T. (2004) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.20030 · Cited by 2,181
A trust model for consumer Internet shopping
Lee, M. K. O., & Turban, E. (2001) · International Journal of Electronic Commerce · doi:10.1080/10864415.2001.11044227 · Cited by 2,012
Taylor, S. A., & Baker, T. L. (1994) · Journal of Retailing · doi:10.1016/0022-4359(94)90013-2 · Cited by 1,999
Yeoh, P., & Roth, K. (1999) · Strategic Management Journal · doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-0266(199907)20:7 · Cited by 324
Measuring Public Service Motivation: An Assessment of Construct Reliability and Validity
Perry, J. L. (1996) · Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.jpart.a024303 · Cited by 1,971
Heuristics versus statistics in discriminant validity testing: a comparison of four procedures
Franke, G. R., & Sarstedt, M. (2019) · Internet Research · doi:10.1108/intr-12-2017-0515 · Cited by 2,355
Reciprocation of perceived organizational support.
Eisenberger, R., Armeli, S., Rexwinkel, B., Lynch, P. D., & Rhoades, L. (2001) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.86.1.42 · Cited by 3,106
A measure of anxiety symptoms among children
Spence, S. H. (1998) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(98)00034-5 · Cited by 1,928
Exploration and exploitation alliances in biotechnology: a system of new product development
Rothaermel, F. T., & DEEDS, D. L. (2004) · Strategic Management Journal · doi:10.1002/smj.376 · Cited by 1,921
The Management of Customer-Contact Service Employees: An Empirical Investigation
Hartline, M. D., & Ferrell, O. C. (1996) · Journal of Marketing · doi:10.2307/1251901 · Cited by 1,966
Han, H., Hsu, L.-T. J., & Sheu, C. (2009) · Tourism Management · doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2009.03.013 · Cited by 2,146
A Reexamination of the Determinants of Consumer Satisfaction
Spreng, R. A., MACKENZIE, S. B., & Olshavsky, R. W. (1996) · Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1177/002224299606000302 · Cited by 1,933
Settoon, R. P., Bennett, N., & Liden, R. C. (1996) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.81.3.219 · Cited by 1,897
Kyriazos, T. A. (2018) · Psychology · doi:10.4236/psych.2018.98126 · Cited by 1,882
“…small samples (Hoyle, 1999; Hoyle & Kenny, 1999; Marsh & Hau, 1999), but generally N = 100 - 150 is set as a minimum sample size for SEM research (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988; Ding, Velicer, & Harlow, 1995) while others set this minimum to N = 200 (Hoogland & Boomsma, 1998; Boomsma & Hoogland,…”
BackgroundThe relationship between total quality management practices and their effects on firm performance
Kaynak, H. (2003) · Journal of Operations Management · doi:10.1016/s0272-6963(03)00004-4 · Cited by 1,981
Sharma, S. (2000) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.2307/1556361 · Cited by 1,919
The use of lisrel in validating marketing constructs
Steenkamp, J.-B. E. M., & van Trijp, H. C. M. (1991) · International Journal of Research in Marketing · doi:10.1016/0167-8116(91)90027-5 · Cited by 1,848
Organizational Theories: Some Criteria for Evaluation
Bacharach, S. B. (1989) · The Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.1989.4308374 · Cited by 2,305
Consumer Switching Costs: A Typology, Antecedents, and Consequences
Burnham, T. A., Frels, J. K., & Mahajan, V. (2003) · Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science · doi:10.1177/0092070302250897 · Cited by 1,858
The Effects of Perceived Interdependence on Dealer Attitudes
Kumar, N., Scheer, L. K., & Steenkamp, J. E. M. (1995) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.2307/3151986 · Cited by 1,873
Measuring Experience Economy Concepts: Tourism Applications
Oh, H., Fiore, A. M., & Jeoung, M. (2007) · Journal of Travel Research · doi:10.1177/0047287507304039 · Cited by 2,044
Multidimensionafity of Leader-Member Exchange: An Empirical Assessment through Scale Development
Liden, R. C., & Maslyn, J. M. (1998) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1016/s0149-2063(99)80053-1 · Cited by 2,050
Structural Equation Modeling and Regression: Guidelines for Research Practice
Gefen, D., Straub, D., & Boudreau, M.-C. (2000) · Communications of the Association for Information Systems · doi:10.17705/1cais.00407 · Cited by 6,416
Measuring Attitude toward the Brand and Purchase Intentions
Spears, N., & Singh, S. N. (2004) · Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising · doi:10.1080/10641734.2004.10505164 · Cited by 1,812
IT competency and firm performance: is organizational learning a missing link?
Tippins, M. J., & Sohi, R. S. (2003) · Strategic Management Journal · doi:10.1002/smj.337 · Cited by 1,794
The Effects of Strategic Orientations on Technology- and Market-Based Breakthrough Innovations
Zhou, K. Z., Yim, C. K., & Tse, D. K. (2005) · Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1509/jmkg.69.2.42.60756 · Cited by 1,785
Allen, D. G., Shore, L. M., & Griffeth, R. W. (2003) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/014920630302900107 · Cited by 1,778
Price Perceptions and Consumer Shopping Behavior: A Field Study
Lichtenstein, D. R., Ridgway, N. M., & Netemeyer, R. G. (1993) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.2307/3172830 · Cited by 1,814
AN EXAMINATION OF LEADERSHIP AND EMPLOYEE CREATIVITY: THE RELEVANCE OF TRAITS AND RELATIONSHIPS
Tierney, P., Farmer, S. M., & Graen, G. B. (1999) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1999.tb00173.x · Cited by 1,726
Measuring the hedonic and utilitarian dimensions of consumer attitude
Voss, K. E., Spangenberg, E. R., & Grohmann, B. (2003) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1509/jmkr.40.3.310.19238 · Cited by 2,151
Aryee, S., Budhwar, P. S., & Chen, Z. X. (2002) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.138 · Cited by 1,722
Defining and developing measures of lean production
Shah, R., & Ward, P. T. (2007) · Journal of Operations Management · doi:10.1016/j.jom.2007.01.019 · Cited by 2,399
Metadata
- Authors
- Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W.
- Affiliations
- Northwestern University (US)
- Portland State University (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 1988-05
- Volume
- 103
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 411-423
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2122912498
- Semantic Scholar
- 2265a198e55665ed3df0f19688350567dab593de
- Cited by
- 41,941
- References
- 70
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1902 · 2025: 2183 · 2024: 2385 · 2023: 2571 · 2022: 2705 · 2021: 2802 · 2020: 2420 · 2019: 2305 · 2018: 2082 · 2017: 2000 · 2016: 1933 · 2015: 1887 · 2014: 1912 · 2013: 1767 · 2012: 1613
- FWCI
- 51.70
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Bayesian Inference
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
- Keywords
- structural equation modeling, nested models, chi-square difference test, model fit assessment, confirmatory factor analysis, exploratory factor analysis, theory testing, predictive modeling, estimation methods
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
