A Review and Synthesis of the Measurement Invariance Literature: Suggestions, Practices, and Recommendations for Organizational Research

Vandenberg, Robert J.; Lance, Charles E.

doi:10.1177/109442810031002

Cited by 7,997Psychometric Methodologies and TestingSocial and Intergroup PsychologyEducational Assessment and Pedagogy

A Review and Synthesis of the Measurement Invariance Literature: Suggestions, Practices, and Recommendations for Organizational Research

Vandenberg, Robert J., Lance, Charles E.·2000·Organizational Research Methods

DOI 10.1177/109442810031002

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Abstract

The establishment of measurement invariance across groups is a logical prerequisite to conducting substantive cross-group comparisons (e.g., tests of group mean differences, invariance of structural parameter estimates), but measurement invariance is rarely tested in organizational research. In this article, the authors (a) elaborate the importance of conducting tests of measurement invariance across groups, (b) review recommended practices for conducting tests of measurement invariance, (c) review applications of measurement invariance tests in substantive applications, (d) discuss issues involved in tests of various aspects of measurement invariance, (e) present an empirical example of the analysis of longitudinal measurement invariance, and (f) propose an integrative paradigm for conducting sequences of measurement invariance tests.

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Multigroup confirmatory factor analysis (MGCFA) is the most commonly used technique for investigating measurement invariance across different groups.
“Multigroup confirmatory factor analysis (MGCFA) is the most commonly used technique for investigating measurement invariance across different groups. In MGCFA, a theoretical model is compared with the observed structures in multiple independent samples (Vandenberg and Lance 2000).”
From Measurement Invariance of the WISC-V across a Clinical Sample of Children and Adolescents with ADHD and a Matched Control Group (2024) · cites this paper as Vandenberg and Lance 2000
Differences observed between Spain and Italy in online sexual harassment perpetration are due to variations in prevalence rates, not discrepancies in participants' interpretation of the instrument.
“We can therefore conclude that the differences observed between countries are due to variations in prevalence rates, not discrepancies in participants’ interpretation of the instrument (Putnick & Bornstein, 2016; Vandenberg & Lance, 2000).”
From Online Sexual Harassment Perpetration Among Peer Adolescents: A Cross-National and Cross-Gender Study (2025) · cites this paper as Vandenberg & Lance, 2000

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Testing for Equivalence of Measurement Scales: Simple Structure and Metric Invariance Reconsidered
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The Beck Depression Inventory: Testing and Cross-Validating a Hierarchical Factor Structure for Nonclinical Adolescents.
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Assessing Stability and Change of Psychometric Properties of Multi-Item Concepts Across Different Situations: A General Approach
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CROSS‐CULTURAL COMPARABILITY OF TEMPERAMENT AMONG JAPANESE AND AMERICAN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN
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INTERPRETING THE MEASUREMENT OF CHANGE IN ORGANIZATIONAL RESEARCH1
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Modeling Developmental Processes Using Latent Growth Structural Equation Methodology
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Confirmatory Factor Analysis of Multitrait-Multimethod Self-concept Data: Between-group and Within-group Invariance Constraints
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Factorial invariance of career indecision dimensions across junior high and high school males and females
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Cross-Cultural Validation of the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire
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A comparison of the factor structure of processing speed for younger and older adults: Testing the assumption of measurement equivalence across age groups.
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Structure of artistic self-concepts for performing arts and non-performing arts students in a performing arts high school: "Setting the stage" with multigroup confirmatory factor analysis.
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Selection and related threats to group comparisons: An example comparing factorial structures of higher and lower ability groups of adult twins.
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A structural comparison between state and trait self‐regulation models
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Ability Factor Structure Differences In Adulthood And Old Age
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A Generation X Scale: Creation and Validation
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Evaluating Goodness-of-Fit Indexes for Testing Measurement Invariance
Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002) · Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1207/s15328007sem0902_5 · Cited by 16,280 · see citing works
Sensitivity of Goodness of Fit Indexes to Lack of Measurement Invariance
Chen, F. F. (2007) · Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705510701301834 · Cited by 12,217 · see citing works
Best Practices for Developing and Validating Scales for Health, Social, and Behavioral Research: A Primer
Boateng, G. O., Neilands, T. B., Frongillo, E. A., Melgar-Quiñonez, H. R., & Young, S. L. (2018) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2018.00149 · Cited by 5,925 · see citing works
Assessing measurement model quality in PLS-SEM using confirmatory composite analysis
Hair, J. F., Howard, M. C., & Nitzl, C. (2020) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.11.069 · Cited by 5,446 · see citing works
Using PLS Path Modeling for Assessing Hierarchical Construct Models: Guidelines and Empirical Illustration1
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Measurement invariance conventions and reporting: The state of the art and future directions for psychological research
Putnick, D. L., & Bornstein, M. H. (2016) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2016.06.004 · Cited by 4,369 · see citing works
“Vandenberg and Lance (2000) soon after outlined 8 steps for testing measurement invariance, with the first 5 steps consisting of the main tests of measurement invariance.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Career adapt-abilities scale: construction, reliability, and measurement equivalence across 13 countries
Savickas, M. L., & Porfeli, E. J. (2012) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2012.01.011 · Cited by 2,397 · see citing works
Context and leadership: an examination of the nine-factor full-range leadership theory using the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire
Antonakis, J., Avolio, B. J., & Sivasubramaniam, N. (2003) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/s1048-9843(03)00030-4 · Cited by 1,533 · see citing works
Longitudinal Research: The Theory, Design, and Analysis of Change
Ployhart, R. E., & Vandenberg, R. J. (2010) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206309352110 · Cited by 1,496 · see citing works
Self-citation
Multigroup Analysis in Partial Least Squares (PLS) Path Modeling: Alternative Methods and Empirical Results
Sarstedt, M., Henseler, J., & Ringle, C. M. (2011) · Advances in International Marketing · doi:10.1108/s1474-7979(2011)0000022012 · Cited by 1,326 · see citing works
Individual Power Distance Orientation and Follower Reactions to Transformational Leaders: A Cross-Level, Cross-Cultural Examination
Kirkman, B. L., Chen, G., Farh, J.-L., Chen, Z. X., & Lowe, K. B. (2009) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2009.43669971 · Cited by 1,094 · see citing works
The Multidimensional Work Motivation Scale: Validation evidence in seven languages and nine countries
Gagné, M., Forest, J., Vansteenkiste, M., Crevier-Braud, L., van den Broeck, A., Aspeli, A. K., Bellerose, J., Benabou, C., Chemolli, E., Güntert, S. T., et al. (2015) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2013.877892 · Cited by 1,051 · see citing works
A validity and reliability study of the coping self‐efficacy scale
Chesney, M. A., Neilands, T. B., Chambers, D. B., Taylor, J. M., & Folkman, S. (2006) · British Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1348/135910705x53155 · Cited by 942 · see citing works
Integrative data analysis: The simultaneous analysis of multiple data sets
Curran, P. J., & Hussong, A. M. (2009) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/a0015914 · Cited by 867 · see citing works
Review: Conceptualization and Measurement of Organizational Readiness for Change: A Review of the Literature in Health Services Research and Other Fields
Weiner, B. J., Amick, H., & Lee, S.-Y. D. (2008) · Medical Care Research and Review · doi:10.1177/1077558708317802 · Cited by 786 · see citing works
Assessing the Hypothesis of Measurement Invariance in the Context of Large-Scale International Surveys
Rutkowski, L., & Svetina, D. (2014) · Educational and Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/0013164413498257 · Cited by 767 · see citing works
Experience sampling methods: A discussion of critical trends and considerations for scholarly advancement
Gabriel, A. S., Podsakoff, N. P., Beal, D. J., Scott, B. A., Sonnentag, S., Trougakos, J. P., & Butts, M. M. (2019) · Organizational Research Methods · doi:10.1177/1094428118802626 · Cited by 755 · see citing works
Individual differences and changes in subjective wellbeing during the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Zacher, H., & Rudolph, C. W. (2021) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/amp0000702 · Cited by 643 · see citing works
Creating value for employees: investment in employee development
Lee, C. H., & Bruvold, N. T. (2003) · The International Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.1080/0958519032000106173 · Cited by 632 · see citing works
The impact of dynamic capabilities on operational marketing and technological capabilities: investigating the role of environmental turbulence
Wilden, R., & Gudergan, S. P. (2015) · Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science · doi:10.1007/s11747-014-0380-y · Cited by 631 · see citing works
Relationship between multiple sources of perceived social support and psychological and academic adjustment in early adolescence: comparisons across gender
Rueger, S. Y., Malecki, C. K., & Demaray, M. K. (2010) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-008-9368-6 · Cited by 591 · see citing works
Developmental cognitive neuroscience using latent change score models: A tutorial and applications
Kievit, R. A., Brandmaier, A. M., Ziegler, G., van Harmelen, A.-L., de Mooij, S. M. M., Moutoussis, M., Goodyer, I. M., Bullmore, E., Jones, P. B., Fonagy, P., et al. (2018) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2017.11.007 · Cited by 516 · see citing works
Testing Measurement Invariance and Comparing Latent Factor Means Within a Confirmatory Factor Analysis Framework
Sass, D. A. (2011) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/0734282911406661 · Cited by 531 · see citing works
Emotion regulation and psychological well-being in teacher work engagement: a case of British and Iranian English language teachers
Greenier, V., Derakhshan, A., & Fathi, J. (2021) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2020.102446 · Cited by 576 · see citing works
Suicidal ideation in transgender people: Gender minority stress and interpersonal theory factors.
Testa, R. J., Michaels, M. S., Bliss, W., Rogers, M. L., Balsam, K. F., & Joiner, T. (2017) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000234 · Cited by 455 · see citing works
Translation and Validation of Body Image Instruments: Challenges, Good Practice Guidelines, and Reporting Recommendations for Test Adaptation
Swami, V., & Barron, D. (2019) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2018.08.014 · Cited by 454 · see citing works
The Psychological Need Satisfaction in Exercise Scale
Wilson, P. M., Rogers, W. T., Rodgers, W. M., & Wild, T. C. (2006) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.28.3.231 · Cited by 452 · see citing works
The effects of social- and self-motives on the intentions to share positive and negative word of mouth
Alexandrov, A., Lilly, B., & Babakus, E. (2013) · Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science · doi:10.1007/s11747-012-0323-4 · Cited by 448 · see citing works
Social networking addiction, attachment style, and validation of the Italian version of the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale
Monacis, L., de Palo, V., Griffiths, M. D., & Sinatra, M. (2017) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.6.2017.023 · Cited by 446 · see citing works
Instrumental leadership: Measurement and extension of transformational–transactional leadership theory
Antonakis, J., & House, R. J. (2014) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2014.04.005 · Cited by 440 · see citing works
Behavioral and Cognitive Characteristics of Females and Males With Autism in the Simons Simplex Collection
Frazier, T. W., Georgiades, S., Bishop, S. L., & Hardan, A. Y. (2014) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2013.12.004 · Cited by 409 · see citing works
Blissfully ignorant: the effects of general privacy concerns, general institutional trust, and affect in the privacy calculus
Kehr, F., Kowatsch, T., Wentzel, D., & Fleisch, E. (2015) · Information Systems Journal · doi:10.1111/isj.12062 · Cited by 410 · see citing works
Acceptance of artificial intelligence among pre-service teachers: A multigroup analysis
Zhang, C., Schießl, J., Plößl, L., Hofmann, F., & Gläser-Zikuda, M. (2023) · International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education · doi:10.1186/s41239-023-00420-7 · Cited by 413 · see citing works
Attitudes toward online social connection and self-disclosure as predictors of Facebook communication and relational closeness
Ledbetter, A. M., Mazer, J. P., DeGroot, J. M., Meyer, K. R., Mao, Y., & Swafford, B. (2011) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/0093650210365537 · Cited by 346 · see citing works
Distinguishing Voice and Silence at Work: Unique Relationships with Perceived Impact, Psychological Safety, and Burnout
Sherf, E. N., Parke, M. R., & Isaakyan, S. (2021) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2018.1428 · Cited by 349 · see citing works
Productivity of Older Workers: Perceptions of Employers and Employees
Van Dalen, H. P., Henkens, K., & Schippers, J. (2010) · Population and Development Review · doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2010.00331.x · Cited by 348 · see citing works
Measuring depression over time … Or not? Lack of unidimensionality and longitudinal measurement invariance in four common rating scales of depression
Fried, E. I., van Borkulo, C. D., Epskamp, S., Schoevers, R. A., Tuerlinckx, F., & Borsboom, D. (2016) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0000275 · Cited by 314 · see citing works
Promoting students' well-being by developing their readiness for the artificial intelligence age
Dai, Y., Chai, C.-S., Lin, P.-Y., Jong, M. S.-Y., Guo, Y., & Qin, J. (2020) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su12166597 · Cited by 330 · see citing works
The development of the Problematic Pornography Consumption Scale (PPCS)
Bőthe, B., Tóth-Király, I., Zsila, Á., Griffiths, M. D., Demetrovics, Z., & Orosz, G. (2018) · The Journal of Sex Research · doi:10.1080/00224499.2017.1291798 · Cited by 317 · see citing works
Psychometric evaluation of the behavioral inhibition/behavioral activation scales in a large sample of outpatients with anxiety and mood disorders
Campbell-Sills, L., Liverant, G. I., & Brown, T. A. (2004) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/1040-3590.16.3.244 · Cited by 280 · see citing works
Communalism, familism, and filial piety: are they birds of a collectivist feather?
Schwartz, S. J., Weisskirch, R. S., Hurley, E. A., Zamboanga, B. L., Park, I. J. K., Kim, S. Y., Umaña-Taylor, A., Castillo, L. G., Brown, E., & Greene, A. D. (2010) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0021370 · Cited by 279 · see citing works
Leader–member social exchange (LMSX): Development and validation of a scale
Bernerth, J. B., Armenakis, A. A., Feild, H. S., Giles, W. F., & Walker, H. J. (2007) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.443 · Cited by 254 · see citing works
Memory Maintenance and Inhibitory Control Differentiate from Early Childhood to Adolescence
Shing, Y. L., Lindenberger, U., Diamond, A., Li, S.-C., & Davidson, M. C. (2010) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565641.2010.508546 · Cited by 239 · see citing works
Personality change following unemployment.
Boyce, C. J., Wood, A. M., Daly, M., & Sedikides, C. (2015) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0038647 · Cited by 231 · see citing works
Male Role Norms Inventory–Short Form (MRNI-SF): Development, confirmatory factor analytic investigation of structure, and measurement invariance across gender.
Levant, R. F., Hall, R. J., & Rankin, T. J. (2013) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0031545 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Openness to Experience: Its Lower Level Structure, Measurement, and Cross-Cultural Equivalence
Woo, S. E., Chernyshenko, O. S., Longley, A., Zhang, Z.-X., Chiu, C.-Y., & Stark, S. E. (2014) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2013.806328 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
Environmental munificence for entrepreneurs: entrepreneurial alertness and commitment
Tang, J. (2008) · International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research · doi:10.1108/13552550810874664 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
UTILITY OF THE DIMENSIONS OF ANGER REACTIONS-5 (DAR-5) SCALE AS A BRIEF ANGER MEASURE: Research Article: Utility of DAR-5
Forbes, D., Alkemade, N., Mitchell, D., Elhai, J. D., McHugh, T., Bates, G., Novaco, R. W., Bryant, R., & Lewis, V. (2014) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22148 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Perceived organizational membership and the retention of older workers
Armstrong‐Stassen, M., & Schlosser, F. (2011) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.647 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
Student Conceptions of Feedback: Impact on Self-Regulation, Self-Efficacy, and Academic Achievement
Brown, G. T. L., Peterson, E. R., & Yao, E. S. (2016) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12126 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
Nostalgia and well-being in daily life: An ecological validity perspective.
Newman, D. B., Sachs, M. E., Stone, A. A., & Schwarz, N. (2020) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspp0000236 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
Validation of the Internet Gaming Disorder Scale – Short-Form (IGDS9-SF) in an Italian-speaking sample
Monacis, L., Palo, V. D., Griffiths, M. D., & Sinatra, M. (2016) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.5.2016.083 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
A syndemic of psychosocial health disparities and associations with risk for attempting suicide among young sexual minority men
Mustanski, B., Andrews, R., Herrick, A., Stall, R., & Schnarrs, P. W. (2014) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2013.301744 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Assessing an organizational culture instrument based on the Competing Values Framework: Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses
Helfrich, C. D., Li, Y.-F., Mohr, D. C., Meterko, M., & Sales, A. E. (2007) · Implementation Science · doi:10.1186/1748-5908-2-13 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
The development of the Compulsive Sexual Behavior Disorder Scale (CSBD-19): An ICD-11 based screening measure across three languages
Bőthe, B., Potenza, M. N., Griffiths, M. D., Kraus, S. W., Klein, V., Fuss, J., & Demetrovics, Z. (2020) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.2020.00034 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
The Anxiety-Buffer Hypothesis in the Time of COVID-19: When Self-Esteem Protects From the Impact of Loneliness and Fear on Anxiety and Depression
Rossi, A., Panzeri, A., Pietrabissa, G., Manzoni, G. M., Castelnuovo, G., & Mannarini, S. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02177 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
“…based on typical interpretation guidelines: for example, a statistically significant chi-square difference (1χ2; p < 0.050) and a 1CFI greater than 0.010 suggest the absence of the bias (Meredith, 1993; Vandenberg and Lance, 2000; Cheung and Rensvold, 2002; Chen, 2007; Millsap, 2012; Brown, 2015).”
BackgroundInfluential
Development and preliminary validation of the mindfulness inventory for sport.
Thienot, E., Jackson, B., Dimmock, J., Grove, J. R., Bernier, M., & Fournier, J. F. (2014) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2013.10.003 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
The relative contribution of emotional competence and cognitive ability to individual and team performance
Offermann, L. R., Bailey, J. R., Vasilopoulos, N. L., Seal, C., & Sass, M. (2004) · Human Performance · doi:10.1207/s15327043hup1702_5 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Separation of performance-approach and performance-avoidance achievement goals: A broader analysis.
Murayama, K., Elliot, A. J., & Yamagata, S. (2011) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0021948 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
The Appearance-Related Social Media Consciousness Scale: Development and validation with adolescents
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Authors: Vandenberg, R. J., & Lance, C. E.
Affiliations: University of Georgia (US)
ORCID: Vandenberg, Robert J.
Lance, Charles E.
Venue: Organizational Research Methods
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2000-01
Volume: 3
Issue: 1
Pages: 4-70
ISSN: 1094-4281 (ISSN-L)
1552-7425
DOI: 10.1177/109442810031002
OpenAlex: W2130653485
Cited by: 7,997
References: 144
Citations by year: 2026: 724 · 2025: 485 · 2024: 497 · 2023: 520 · 2022: 496 · 2021: 530 · 2020: 514 · 2019: 407 · 2018: 392 · 2017: 394 · 2016: 375 · 2015: 389 · 2014: 387 · 2013: 350 · 2012: 288
FWCI: 40.31
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Organizational Research Methods (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Education › Educational Assessment and Pedagogy
Keywords: measurement invariance, cross-group comparison, longitudinal measurement invariance, structural equation modeling, group mean differences, organizational analysis

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A Review and Synthesis of the Measurement Invariance Literature: Suggestions, Practices, and Recommendations for Organizational Research

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