Cited by 1,550Social and Intergroup PsychologyCategorization, perception, and languageDecision-Making and Behavioral Economics

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Negativity and extremity biases in impression formation: A review of explanations.

Skowronski, John J., Carlston, Donal E.·1989·Psychological Bulletin

DOI 10.1037/0033-2909.105.1.131

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Abstract

Mise au point sur les explications de certains biais lies aux recherches sur la formation des impressions, et presentation d'un modele fonde sur des indices de categorisation du stimulus pour rendre compte de tels biais

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Crossref · 10.1037/0033-2909.105.1.131

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Krupnikov, Y. (2014) · Political Communication · doi:10.1080/10584609.2013.828141 · Cited by 64
“Following Kahneman and Tverksy (1979), Skowronski and Carlston (1989) argue that the presence of negativity is more likely than the presence of positivity to signal to an individual that he or she has sufficient information to make a selection.”
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Social Media and Large Carnivores: Sharing Biased News on Attacks on Humans
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“Furthermore, negative stimuli receive greater weight during the formation of evaluations and assessments than positive information (Skowronski & Carlston, 1989).”
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“…Alicke et al., 1994) studies may arise from an informational impact of negativity rather than a motivational one, because negative information provides particularly diagnostic evidence of a person's dispositions Y127289.indb 322 12/6/11 11:54 AM (Reeder & Brewer, 1979; Skowronski & Carlston, 1989).”
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“…that observers integrate over the social information they encounter, and update their impressions according to several stable ‘rules’ (Asch, 1946; Anderson, 1965; Aronson et al., 1966; Reeder and Brewer, 1979; Fiske, 1980; Skowronski and Carlston, 1989; Freeman and Ambady, 2011; Zaki, 2013).”
Background
How Pervasive is the Negativity Bias in Judgments Based on Character Appraisal?
Lupfer, M. B., Weeks, M., & Dupuis, S. E. (2000) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167200263004 · Cited by 61
“Although acknowledging the merits of each, Skowronski and Carlston (1989) ultimately found all these explanations wanting, in terms of their logic, the available evidence, or both.”
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“Psychology research on negativity biases in impression formation (e.g., Feldman, 1966; Fiske, 1980; Skowronski & Carlston, 1989) has been especially influential, and has been fruitfully applied in work on political leaders as well (e.g., Goren, 2007; Klein, 1991; Lau, 1982, 1985).”
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“They argued that the theoretical bases (e.g., diagnosticity and typicality - see Skowronski & Carlston, 1989) of negativity effects in trait judgments applied only to situations in which people used correspondent inference processes (e.g., when a behavior self-description is provided).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
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“These findings suggest a negativity bias in processing information, whereby negative information has a stronger impact on judgment and decision making than objectively equivalent positive information (Sen and Lerman 2007; Skowronski and Carlston 1989).”
Background
The Role of Affect in Determining the Attributional Weight of Immoral Behaviors
Trafimow, D., Bromgard, I. K., Finlay, K. A., & Ketelaar, T. (2005) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167204272179 · Cited by 59
“This increased cognitive processing could enhance the importance of cognitive variables such as cue-diagnosticity (Skowronski & Carlston, 1987, 1989), scope (Gidron et al., 1993), and implicational schemas (Reeder & Brewer, 1979).”
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“…that inter alia setting (e.g., consumer environments: Ahluwalia, 2002; political advertising: Allen & Burrell, 2002) and textual factors (e.g., type of information: Skowronski & Carlston, 1989; message framing: Block & Keller, 1995; O’Keefe & Jensen, 2006) could reduce the impact of negativity.”
Background
Impacts of user-generated images in online reviews on customer engagement: A panel data analysis
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“Together, these results contrast with a strong finding in psychology research: ‘bad is stronger than good’ (Baumeister et al., 2001), with negative stimuli having larger effects on human cognition and behaviour (Skowronski and Carlston, 1989).”
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“Most relevant for my purposes, theories of negativity bias hold that negative traits manifest stronger effects on bottom-line judgments about some target than equally extreme positive traits (Skowronski & Carlston, 1989).”
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“This occurs because negative information is often unexpected, and unexpectedness provides an alternative version for the impact of negative information on perspectives (Skowronski and Carlston 1989; Peeters and Czapinski 1990).”
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Lateral Attitude Change
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“However, under certain conditions positive information can also acquire high diagnostic value (Skowronski & Carlston, 1989): In environments where negative behaviors are the norm and only certain (good) people perform good actions, positive behavior is highly diagnostic for identifying good people.”
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“Previous research has argued that negative information is typically more diagnostic in categorizing the target into a certain category than positive information (Skowronski and Carlston, 1989).”
Background
The credibility and attribution of online reviews
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“Perceptual biases are accentuated by the tendency, well documented in the psychological literature, for negative events to exert a disproportionate influence on beliefs, while positive events appear to have much less subjective impact (e.g., Skowronski and Carlston 1989; Taylor 1991; Viscusi 1997).”
Background
Social Perception of Self-Enhancement Bias and Error
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“…larger in the moral domain and positive information is more important in the competence domain (i.e., Klein & Epley, 2016; Reeder & Brewer, 1979; Skowronski & Carlston, 1989), then it is sufficient to argue that one negative observation (a betterthan-average claim) and one positive observation…”
Background
Consumer responses toward online review manipulation
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“Skowronski and Carlston ( 1987 , 1989 ) suggested that one place such biases could occur is in judgments about ability.”
Background
Seeing The World Through Rose‐colored Glasses? Neglect of Consensus Information in Young Children's Personality Judgments
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“For example, although adults generally subscribe to the principles of attribution theory, they tend to exhibit negativity biases in their judgments of others (e.g., Ito, Larsen, Smith, & Cacioppo, 1998; Rozin & Royzman, 2001; Skowronski & Carlston, 1989).”
Background
Self‐Serving Evaluations of Conflict Behavior and Escalation of the Dispute1
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“Specifically, research in the area of impression formation has often noted that negative information generally has more impact on person impressions than positive information (see Skowronski & Carlston, 1989).”
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Background
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“Previous research has shown that evaluations are more negative when participants expect to evaluate a product or service (Ofir and Simonson 2001), because they overweigh negative aspects (Skowronski and Carlston 1989).”
Background
Honesty And Intelligence Judgments Of Individuals And Groups: The Effects Of Entity-related Behavior Diagnosticity And Implicit Theories
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“Skowronski (1985) and Skowronski and Carlston (1987, 1989) translated these ideas into the language of categorization theory.”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Enhancing the impact of online hotel reviews through the use of emoticons
Manganari, E. E., & Dimara, E. (2017) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2016.1275807 · Cited by 50
“Elaborating on the existing literature regarding the enhanced perceived value of negative information (Skowronski and Carlston 1989; Park and Nicolau 2015), one can assume that the presence of emoticons acts as a perceived consumer safeguard by heightening the impact of a negative review as the…”
Background
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Kim, Y., Kim, S., & Arora, N. (2021) · Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1177/00222429211064901 · Cited by 50
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“We focus on the greater diagnosticity of negative information ( Skowronski & Carlston, 1989 ) and discuss how highly diagnostic information might impact how job seekers' interpret highly accessible information according the accessibility-diagnosticity model ( Feldman & Lynch, 1988 ; Lynch et al, 1988 ).”
Background
Investor Attention and Macroeconomic News Announcements: Evidence from Stock Index Futures
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“This bias is well documented for behaviors that fall under the morality domain (Skowronski & Carlston, 1989; Wojciszke, 2005).”
BackgroundResult
Talking into (non)existence: Denying or constituting paradoxes of Corporate Social Responsibility
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“This results in a simple ‘attribution error’ and a more complex one (Skowronski and Carlston, 1989): •• If a company does something bad, then it is because of their bad motives.”
Background
Explaining Asymmetric Intergroup Judgments through Differential Aggregation: Computer Simulations and Some New Evidence
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Human-algorithm interactions help explain the spread of misinformation
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“This may be especially the case within the morality domain (see Reeder & Brewer, 1979; Skowronski & Carlston, 1989).”
Background
Character Cues and Contracting Costs: The Relationship Between Philanthropy and the Cost of Capital
Zolotoy, L., O’Sullivan, D., & Klein, J. G. (2017) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-017-3475-9 · Cited by 48
“Positive acts tend to be taken as a weak signal of character when these acts are consistent with expectations (Wong and Weiner 1981) or when they are seen as conforming to social norms (e.g., Jones and Davis 1965; Skowronski and Carlston 1989).”
Background
The interconnected role of strength of brand and interpersonal relationships and user comment valence on brand video sharing behaviour
Hayes, J. L., Shan, Y., & King, K. W. (2017) · International Journal of Advertising · doi:10.1080/02650487.2017.1360576 · Cited by 51
“While negative information often outweighs positive information, the cue– diagnosticity model holds that a positivity effect can occur when positive eWOM is more diagnostic than negative eWOM (Skowronski and Carlston 1989).”
Background
How valence, volume and variance of online reviews influence brand attitudes
Zablocki, A., Schlegelmilch, B. B., & Houston, M. J. (2018) · AMS Review · doi:10.1007/s13162-018-0123-1 · Cited by 51
Attitudes, personal evaluations, cognitive evaluation and interpersonal attraction: On the direct, indirect and reverse‐causal effects
Singh, R., Ho, L. J., Tan, H. L., & Bell, P. A. (2006) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466606x104417 · Cited by 48
Person memory and judgment: Pragmatic influences on impressions formed in a social context.
Wyer, R. S., Budesheim, T. L., Lambert, A. J., & Swan, S. (1994) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.66.2.254 · Cited by 48
Procedural justice and intragroup status: Knowing where we stand in a group enhances reactions to procedures
van Prooijen, J., van den Bos, K., & Wilke, H. (2005) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2004.12.003 · Cited by 51
“…exert positive e V ects, and that people seem to be a V ected more by procedural in justice than by procedural justice (e.g., Folger, 1984; Folger & Cropanzano, 1998; Van den Bos & Van Prooi-jen, 2001; see also Brockner & Wiesenfeld, 1996; Van den Bos et al., 1997; cf. Skowronski & Carlston, 1989).”
Remedies for information asymmetry in online transaction
Shen, C., Chiou, J., & Kuo, B. (2011) · Internet Research · doi:10.1108/10662241111123748 · Cited by 52
“Skowronski and Carlston (1989) proposed that one of the factors that affects the informative degree of a cue is its discrepancy from what is expected: People expect most life outcomes to be moderately positive, and positive information is closer to normative expectancy than is negative information;…”
Background
Weighting Positive Versus Negative: The Fundamental Nature of Valence Asymmetry
Pietri, E. S., Fázio, R. H., & Shook, N. J. (2012) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2012.00800.x · Cited by 49
Varieties of (De) Humanization: Divided by Competition and Status
Fiske, S. T. (2013) · Nebraska Symposium on Motivation/The Nebraska symposium on motivation · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-6959-9_3 · Cited by 47
“Hence, impression-formers especially weight negative information (Fiske 1980; Ito et al. 1998; Skowronski and Carlston 1989; Taylor 1991).”
Background
Predicting hotel book intention: The influential role of helpfulness and advocacy of online reviews
Ghosh, T. (2017) · Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management · doi:10.1080/19368623.2017.1364198 · Cited by 50
“This happens because negative information carries more distinctive information than positive ones and is perceived to be more diagnostic in nature (Skowronski & Carlston, 1989), thereby triggering more favorable effects on attitude and impression formation (Rozin & Royzman, 2001).”
Background
Consumers’ responses to negative publicity: the influence of culture on information search and negative word-of-mouth
Yu, M., Liu, F., & Lee, J. A. (2018) · Journal of Brand Management · doi:10.1057/s41262-018-0123-3 · Cited by 53
The Halo Effect of CSR Activity: Types of CSR Activity and Negative Information Effects
Jin, C., & Lee, J.-Y. (2019) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su11072067 · Cited by 49
Tone Versus Information: Explaining the Impact of Negative Political Advertising
Stevens, D. P. (2012) · Journal of Political Marketing · doi:10.1080/15377857.2012.723988 · Cited by 46
“…of messages because negative cues are of greater diagnostic value to impending judgments (Carver and Schier 1990; Derryberry 1991; Lau 1982, 1985; Skowronski and Carlston 1989): “campaigns that spur concern about the current state of affairs would seem much more likely to motivate people to pay…”
Background
The Tipping Point of Moral Change: When Do Good and Bad Acts Make Good and Bad Actors?
Klein, N., & O’Brien, E. (2016) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2016.34.2.149 · Cited by 48
Negative disclosures in corporate social responsibility reporting
Einwiller, S. A., & Carroll, C. E. (2020) · Corporate Communications An International Journal · doi:10.1108/ccij-05-2019-0054 · Cited by 48
Predicting Consumer Avoidance of Native Advertising on Social Networking Sites: A Survey of Facebook Users
Chung, Y. J., & Kim, E. (2020) · Journal of Promotion Management · doi:10.1080/10496491.2020.1809590 · Cited by 46
I am Not a Better Teacher, But Others are Doing Worse: Burnout and Perceptions of Superiority Among Teachers
Brenninkmeijer, V., Vanyperen, N. W., & Buunk, B. P. (2001) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1023/a:1011376503306 · Cited by 46
Religiosity, Gender, and the Double Standard
Sheeran, P., Spears, R., Abraham, C., & Abrams, D. (1996) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980.1996.9914985 · Cited by 46
Social Influences on Judgments of Rape Victims: The Role of the Negative and Positive Social Reactions of Others
Brown, A. L., & Testa, M. (2007) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9353-7 · Cited by 45
“…to note that positive social reactions were not as contagious as negative social reactions; however this is consistent with the robust tendency for negative information to have a greater impact on social judgments than positive information (Baumeister et al., 2001; Skowronski and Carlston, 1989).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
What is smart in a social dilemma? differential effects of priming competence on cooperation
Utz, S., Ouwerkerk, J. W., & Lange, P. A. M. V. (2004) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.200 · Cited by 45
“The dimension of competence (i.e. intellectual desirability, ability) appears to be a dimension that individuals tend to use in organizing and forming person impressions (Rosenberg & Sedlak, 1972; see also Reeder & Brewer, 1979; Skowronski & Carlston, 1989).”
Background
Measuring the Impact of Positive and Negative Word of Mouth: A Reappraisal
East, R., Uncles, M., Romaniuk, J., & Lomax, W. (2016) · Australasian Marketing Journal (AMJ) · doi:10.1016/j.ausmj.2015.12.003 · Cited by 45
“The impact of positive and negative information on attitudes has been reviewed by Skowronski and Carlston (1989).”
Background
How leader gender influences external audience response to organizational failures.
Montgomery, N., & Cowen, A. P. (2020) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspa0000176 · Cited by 41
“Following prior work in this domain, we examine responses to both ethical and competence failures (Brown & Dacin, 1997; Skowronski & Carlston, 1989; Votolato & Unnava, 2006; Wojciszke, Brycz, & Borkenau, 1993).”
Method
Generation, susceptibility, and response regarding negativity: An in-depth analysis on negative online reviews
Colmekcioglu, N., Marvi, R., Foroudi, P., & Okumuş, F. (2022) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2022.08.033 · Cited by 49
“In Group 10, Skowronski and Carlston (1989) show that customers consider positive reviews less helpful given negativity bias.”
Background

Authors: Skowronski, J. J., & Carlston, D. E.
Affiliations: The Ohio State University Newark (US)
ORCID: Skowronski, John J.
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1989
Volume: 105
Issue: 1
Pages: 131-142
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.105.1.131
OpenAlex: W1981706854
Cited by: 1,550
References: 98
Citations by year: 2026: 39 · 2025: 49 · 2024: 46 · 2023: 61 · 2022: 43 · 2021: 73 · 2020: 90 · 2019: 84 · 2018: 64 · 2017: 72 · 2016: 56 · 2015: 58 · 2014: 68 · 2013: 70 · 2012: 51
FWCI: 48.95
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Categorization, perception, and language
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
Keywords: negativity bias, impression formation, stimulus classification, social perception

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Negativity and extremity biases in impression formation: A review of explanations.

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