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An appraisal-disruption model of alcohol’s effects on stress responses in social drinkers
Abstract
This article reviews the effects of alcohol on stress responses among social drinkers. Despite considerable research, the relationship between alcohol and stress has remained unclear. An appraisal-disruption model of alcohol's effects on stress responses is proposed, which attempts to integrate many divergent findings. According to this model, alcohol disrupts initial appraisal of stressful information by constraining the spread of activation of associated information previously established in long-term memory. The conditions under which such disruption is likely to occur are outlined. Evidence relevant to each of the model's propositions is considered. It is concluded that the appraisal-disruption model provides a framework for integrating many of the findings from past investigations. Theoretical issues pertinent to the model are addressed.
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“The ADM suggests that individuals use alcohol to dampen negative self-talk, thereby weakening stress and anxiety symptoms [9,10].”
From Does Relationship-Contingent Self-Esteem Play a Role in the Stress to Impaired Control Pathway to Alcohol-Related Problems in a College Student Sample? (2023) · cites this paper as [9]
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“First, alcohol’s stress dampening effects depend upon alcohol effects early in the stress appraisal process (Sayette, 1993); a similar effect might be present for nicotine.”
The role of cognitive structure in college student problem drinking
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“Controlled laboratory studies have an even longer history with respect to trying to disentangle what are clearly complex associations between alcohol use and affect (Sayette, 1993; Steele & Josephs, 1990).”
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“Alcohol’s anxiolytic effect may make women with a CSA history more likely to abdicate (Sayette, 1993).”
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Sayette, M. A., Martin, C. S., Perrott, M. A., & Wertz, J. M. (2001) · Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1037//1064-1297.9.4.409 · Cited by 13
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The Role of Sexual Assault and Sexual Dysfunction in Alcohol/Other Drug Use Disorders
Sanjuan, P. M., Langenbucher, J. W., & Labouvie, E. W. (2009) · Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07347320902785541 · Cited by 12
“� Emotion Regulation Reasons for Use Scale: a scale designed specifically for the Rutgers Research Diagnostic Project (RDP) battery that was modeled from research on affect and feelings derived from the literature on reasons to drink alcohol (for more information on this literature see Sayette, 1993; Steele & Josephs,…”
MethodYeater, E. A., Witkiewitz, K. A., López, G., Ross, R. S., Vitek, K. N., & Bryan, A. D. (2018) · Violence Against Women · doi:10.1177/1077801218787926 · Cited by 12
“Conceptual frameworks such as alcohol myopia theory (Steele & Josephs, 1990; Steele & Southwick, 1985) and the appraisal–disruption model of stress responding (Sayette, 1993) have been used to explain how alcohol might increase women’s victimization risk by impairing their ability to perceive and respond to social sit…”
BackgroundAlcohol-Influenced Nonverbal Behaviors During Discussions About a Relationship Problem
Samp, J. A., & Monahan, J. L. (2009) · Journal of Nonverbal Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10919-009-0069-y · Cited by 12
“Research suggests that nonverbal behaviors are particularly revealing of relational perceptions when communicators are dealing with conflictual, problematic, or distressing situations within their relationships (e.g., Canary et al. 1995; Gonzaga et al. 2006) and since alcohol has been argued to primarily affect behavi…”
BackgroundInfluentialDrinking Reasons and Alcohol Problems by Work Venue Among Female Sex Workers in Guangxi, China
Chen, Y., Li, X., Shen, Z., Zhou, Y., & Tang, Z. (2015) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.3109/10826084.2014.997827 · Cited by 11
“…paradigm, researchers have adapted more elaborated models such as the attention allocation model (Steele & Josephs, 1988, 1990) and the appraisal-disruption model (Sayette, 1993; Sayette, Martin, Perrott, Wertz, & Hufford, 2001) to clarify the connection between alcohol use and affect regulation.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAlcohol use and stress in women: The role of prior vs. anticipated stressors
McNair, L. D. (1996) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/bf02229139 · Cited by 11
The Role of Mental Processes in the Failure of Inhibition
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The use of off-trade glass as a weapon in violent assaults by Young Offenders
FORSYTH, A. J. M., Khan, F., & McKinlay, W. W. (2010) · Crime Prevention and Community Safety · doi:10.1057/cpcs.2010.12 · Cited by 9
“For example from ‘disinhibition’ or ‘threat appraisal disruption’ (Collins, J. J. & Messerschmidt; Graham et al 1997; Sayette, 1993).”
Stress, Alcohol Consumption, and the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis
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Alcohol's Effects on Goal-Related Appraisals and Communicative Behaviors
Monahan, J. L., & Samp, J. A. (2007) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/0093650207300432 · Cited by 9
“In addition, there are several problems associated with the balanced placebo design (Martin & Sayette, 1993).”
BackgroundNeurotoxicology of alcohol: a bibliometric and science mapping analysis
Mendes, P. F. S., Baia-da-Silva, D. C., Melo, W. W. P., Bittencourt, L. O., de Souza‐Rodrigues, R. D., Fernandes, L. M. P., Maia, C. D. S. F., & Lima, R. R. (2023) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2023.1209616 · Cited by 9
Karlén, M. H., af Hjelmsäter, E. R., & Gudjonsson, G. H. (2018) · Psychology Crime and Law · doi:10.1080/1068316x.2018.1526936 · Cited by 8
“These results may indicate that intoxicated witnesses had a lower capacity for meaningful association and specificity, in line with the appraisal-disruption model (Sayette, 1993).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialManipulating Alcohol Expectancies in Social Anxiety: A Focus on Beliefs About Losing Control
Gagné, J., Radomsky, A. S., & O’Connor, R. M. (2020) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-020-10165-6 · Cited by 8
“An alternative explanation to tension reduction theory is offered by the appraisal-disruption model (Sayette 1993).”
MethodThe relationship between placebo alcohol and affect: Motives for drinking
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Ein Überblick über experimentelle Befunde zur Wirkung von Alkohol auf klinisch relevante Angst
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“Dominant explanations of the effects of alcohol on social behavior assume that alcohol impacts behavior primarily when reacting to a stressor (e.g., the appraisal disruption model; Sayette, 1993) or a conflict between a provoking cue and an inhibition cue (AMT; Steele & Josephs, 1990).”
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Giancola, P. R. (2015) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.3109/10826084.2015.1010836 · Cited by 8
“Sayette (1993) advanced an information appraisal– disruption model of alcohol’s effects on stress that has been applied to partially explain alcohol-related violence.”
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A systematic review of the acute effects of alcohol on emotion recognition of facial expressions
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Covid-19 lockdown and wine consumption frequency in Portugal and Spain (Article replaced)
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“…factors such as sensory gratification, social bonding (Dunbar et al., 2017), pleasant experience (Peele & Grant, 1999), the creation of a positive or relaxed mood and the ability to cope with difficulties and to adapt (Sayette, 1993; Cooper, 1994; Stritzke et al., 1996; Foster et al., 2014).”
Alcohol’s Effects During Uncertain and Uncontrollable Stressors in the Laboratory
Bradford, D. E., Shireman, J. M., Sant'Ana, S. J. K., Fronk, G. E., Wanta, S. E., & Curtin, J. J. (2022) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026211061355 · Cited by 7
“For example, theories such as the appraisal-disruption model (Sayette, 1993) recognize that drinking often occurs following a stressor rather than before it, as was the case in the current study.”
BackgroundEffect of anticipatory stress on placebo alcohol consumption in a bar laboratory
Bernstein, M. H., & Wood, M. D. (2016) · The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse · doi:10.1080/00952990.2016.1209514 · Cited by 7
“(16) in the following ways: (1) analyze the impact of anticipatory stress, (2) examine potential moderators, and (3)”
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Aramakis, V. B., Khamba, B., MacLeod, C. M., Poulos, C. X., & Zack, M. H. (2011) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881111416690 · Cited by 7
“The complementary Appraisal Disruption hypothesis asserts that alcohol impairs appraisal of a stimulus, so that events that would elicit unpleasant associations when sober lose their capacity to do so (Sayette, 1993).”
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“Along these lines, it has been suggested that alcohol exerts its effects by inhibiting an individual’s neurological stress response or by disrupting the self-appraisal process ( Sayette, 1993 ).”
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“However, high levels of psychoactive substance use can result in the inhibition of the central nervous system, reduce discernment, weaken attention and memory, resulting in increased risk for poor decision-making [34], anxiety and depression [35, 36].”
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Improvisato, P., Trouillet, R., Schuldiner, S., Luquiens, A., Hamonnière, T., Donnadieu, H., & Perney, P. (2024) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.3048 · Cited by 5
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“A fifth limitation stems from Sayette’s (1993) Appraisal Disruption Model, which emphasizes the order of stressors and alcohol consumption in influencing alcohol’s effect on stress response (45).”
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“Frequency of alcohol use was the primary outcome because alcohol use is common and related to differences in stress responses (De Leon et al., 2020; Kuntsche et al., 2015; Sayette, 1993; Sayette et al., 2012).”
Kalina, E., Boyd-Frenkel, K., Patock-Peckham, J. A., Schneidewent, L., Broussard, M. L., & Leeman, R. F. (2023) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs13020185 · Cited by 4
“According to the ADM, alcohol can disrupt unhappy thoughts or self-evaluations [11].”
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“Whereas acute alcohol consumption seems to exert dampening effects on cardiovascular reactivity to stress (Hoaken et al., 2003; Sayette, 1993; Sher et al., 2007), less is known about levels of chronic alcohol consumption (i.”
BackgroundAdult Experimental Psychopathology
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“The Stress Dampening Hypothesis (Marlatt, 1987; Sayette, 1993; Sher, 1987) suggests that alcohol is a substance often used to alleviate negative affect.”
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L’alcool favorise-t-il les conduites d’agression physique et verbale entre partenaires intimes ?
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Alcohol Use and Alcohol Use Disorders
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Entwicklung und Aufrechterhaltung von Drogengebrauch und Drogenabhängigkeit
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Alcohol intoxicated witnesses' interpretation of social behavior in intimate partner violence
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“The degree of alcohol’s impairment of cognitive functions is dose dependent, causing successively increasing negative effects on many cognitive functions, such as focused attention, divided attention, and working memory capacity (Sayette, 1993; Curran, 2006; Zoethout et al., 2011; Dry et al., 2012).”
BackgroundThe influence of alcohol on rumination and metacognitions in major depressive disorder
Gawron, L., Pohl, A., & Gerlach, A. L. (2022) · Clinical Psychology in Europe · doi:10.32872/cpe.5615 · Cited by 1
“Thus, our results suggest that previous models of alcohol effects from the domain of anxiety disorders (e.g., Sayette, 1993) may not be easily transferable to the domain of depressive disorders.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialZaso, M. J., Troidl, I. R., & Read, J. P. (2024) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026231215341 · Cited by 2
“…(i.e., an attention-allocation model; Steele & Josephs, 1988) or for alcohol’s pharmacological ability to disrupt processing of trauma-related information (i.e., an appraisal-disruption model; Sayette, 1993), which may serve as a strong negative reinforcer of trauma-related drinking over time.”
Creswell, K. G., Wright, A. G. C., Sayette, M. A., Girard, J. M., Lyons, G., & Smyth, J. M. (2025) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026251333784 · Cited by 2
“…glasses with vodka and presented false BAC readings with a customized breathalyzer that ranged from 0.041% to 0.043% (randomly assigned), the highest credible reading for placebo participants (Martin & Sayette, 1993), immediately after drinking (Bowdring & Sayette, 2018; Fairbairn et al., 2022).”
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Economic Hardship, Social Welfare and Suicide in Korea
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“(2003) montrent par exemple que plus de 60 % des rechutes après désintoxication sont directement attribuables à des difficultés émotionnelles ou interpersonnelles [27].”
BackgroundAn Ecologically-Valid Intervention for Men's Alcohol-Related Aggression Toward Women
Gallagher, K. E. (2022) · Digital Archive @ GSU · doi:10.57709/5451828 · Cited by 2
Emotion Regulation as a Mediator of Adolescent Developmental Processes and Problem Outcomes
Kivisto, K. L. (2011) · Cited by 2
Multiple facets of self-esteem: within attribution style, stress coping and forgiveness
Tseng, W.-L. (2009) · Leicester Research Archive (University of Leicester) · Cited by 2
Influence of Appraisal and Coping Following Extreme Stress
Olff, M. (2011) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118083222.ch29 · Cited by 2
Ambulatory assessment of physiological arousal, emotion, and alcohol use
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“On the surface, this seems to be in line with theoretical frameworks such as ABC theory (Mather & Sutherland, 2011) and appraisal-disruption theory (Sayette, 1993), according to which threatening or unpleasant experiences most likely feel less intense after some time has passed, as the acute emotional activation cause…”
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Models of Self-Regulation Mechanisms in Peer-Rejected Students
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“There is ample evidence that emotional distress leads to failure of self-regulation (Sayette, 1993; Tice et al., 2001; Wegener & Petty, 1994).”
BackgroundAlcohol’s acute effects on emotion recognition and empathy in heavy-drinking young adults
Kumar, L., Creswell, K. G., Brown, K. W., Lyons, G., & Feeney, B. C. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-98153-2 · Cited by 2
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Does Disinhibition Mediate Alcohol Use And Risk Taking
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GENETIC LINKS TO THE REINFORCING EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL IN A SOCIAL CONTEXT
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Self-Control and Alcohol Expectancies
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“The anxiolysis-disinhibition model (Sayette, 1993) posits that under normal conditions risky behaviour is inhibited by increased subjective anxiety in response to cognitions related to the behaviour.”
BackgroundCritical Steps to Developing a Unified Theory of Alcohol Use in Latin America
Holtzer, C. C. (2007) · D-Scholarship@Pitt (University of Pittsburgh)
The Influence of Gender, Anxiety and Food Cravings on Alcohol Use within a University Population
Marissa, J., & Stapleton, P. (2015) · e-publications@bond (Bond University)
Disinhibition and alcohol consumption
Jones, A. (2013) · University of Liverpool · doi:10.17638/00009153
Effects of Alcohol in Social Context: A multivariate, sequential analysis
Kirchner, T. (2004) · D-Scholarship@Pitt (University of Pittsburgh)
Effecten van alcohol en kwetsbaarheid voor verslaving
Wiers, R. W. H. J. (2000) · Neuropraxis · doi:10.1007/bf03078983
When Drinking Makes It Worse: The Malevolence Assumption, Appraisals, and Communication Goals
Samp, J. A., & Miller, A. N. (2006) · Communication Quarterly · doi:10.1080/01463370601036150
“…online # 2006 Eastern Communication Association DOI: 10.1080/01463370601036150 greater (Rohrberg & Sousa-Poza, 1976) and more positive (Sayette, 1993) self-disclosure, increasing helping behavior (Steele, Critchlow, & Liu, 1985), and heightening desires to form friendships (Monahan &…”
BackgroundInfluentialAffective Processing in Acute Alcohol Intoxication
Balodis, I. M. (2008) · QSpace (Queen's University Library)
Padula, C. B., Simmons, A. N., Matthews, S. C., Robinson, S. K., Tapert, S. F., Schuckit, M. A., & Paulus, M. P. (2011)
The Role of Recovery from Work in Work Stress-Related Drinking
Shepherd, B. R. (2016) · doi:10.15760/etd.3319
“The appraisal disruption model (Sayette, 1993) of stress and alcohol suggests that alcohol use can disrupt information processing and appraisal of new information protecting the drinker from fully experiencing the stressor, thus facilitating detachment from that stressor.”
BackgroundThe effect of adequate alcohol intake on the efficiency of second language learning
Park, J., Jeon, S. G., Mapoy, A. J., Grandmason, M. L., Nowroski, D. P., Peev, K., Dykes, D., Ting, P., Taylor, T., Shore, M. C., et al. (2017) · Translational Brain Rhythmicity · doi:10.15761/tbr.1000117
“The tongue loosening effect of alcohol may be due to reduced concern regarding mistakes in grammar [16] or to increased permeability of”
BackgroundSubstance‐Related and Addictive Disorders: Alcohol
Wagner, E. F., Hospital, M. M., Sobell, M. B., & Sobell, L. C. (2018) · doi:10.1002/9781394258970.ch18
Preprint: Alcohol Stress Response Dampening during imminent vs. distal, uncertain threatPreprint
Hefner, K. R., Moberg, C. A., Hachiya, L. Y., & Curtin, J. J. (2018) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/pnkug
Alcohol and the dysregulation of cognitive control: Exploring the role of emotion
Scott-Smith, T. A. (2019) · doi:10.26686/wgtn.17139968
Capito, E. S. (2020) · doi:10.20378/irb-48211
“Beispielsweise erklärt das appraisal-disruption model (Sayette, 1993; Sayette et al., 2001) eine begünstigte Stressreduktion dadurch, dass Alkohol eine vertiefte Elaboration des Stressors verhindert.”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Sayette, M. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Pittsburgh (US)
- Corresponding author
- Sayette, Michael A.
- ORCID
- Sayette, Michael A.
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 1993
- Volume
- 114
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 459-476
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W1998465194
- Cited by
- 320
- References
- 150
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 12
- FWCI
- 4.28
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pathology and Forensic Medicine › Alcohol Consumption and Health Effects
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Keywords
- alcohol, stress response, social drinkers, stress appraisal, long-term memory, information dissemination, alcohol effects on cognition
- MeSH terms
- Alcohol Drinking, Ethanol, Cognition, Female, Humans, Life Change Events, Male, Personality, Stress, Psychological
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