Cited by 1,844Aging and Gerontology ResearchBehavioral Health and InterventionsOptimism, Hope, and Well-being

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 210 of the 210 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

A life-span theory of control.

Heckhausen, Jutta, Schulz, Richard·1995·Psychological Review

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

A life-span theory of development is presented that is based on the concepts of primary and secondary control. Primary control refers to behaviors directed at the external environment and involves attempts to change the world to fit the needs and desires of the individual. Secondary control is targeted at internal processes and serves to minimize losses in, maintain, and expand existing levels of primary control. Secondary control helps the individual to cope with failure and fosters primary control by channeling motivational resources toward selected action goals throughout the life course. Primary control has functional primacy over secondary control. An analysis of extensive and diverse literatures spanning infancy through old age shows that trade-offs between primary and secondary control undergo systematic shifts across the life course in response to the opportunities and constraints encountered.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/0033-295x.102.2.284

Cites

210 of 210 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985) · doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-2271-7 · Cited by 26,772
Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency
Bandura, A. (1982) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.37.2.122 · Cited by 15,975
Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior
Miller, K. A. J., Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1988) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2070638 · Cited by 15,406
Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change
Bandura, A. (1978) · Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0146-6402(78)90002-4 · Cited by 10,586
A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality.
Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.95.2.256 · Cited by 9,745
THE ROLE OF TUTORING IN PROBLEM SOLVING *
Wood, D., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1976.tb00381.x · Cited by 8,851
Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformulation.
Abramson, L. Y., Seligman, M. E., & Teasdale, J. D. (1978) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-843x.87.1.49 · Cited by 7,121
Helplessness: On Depression, Development, and Death
Seligman, M. E. P. (1975) · CERN Document Server (European Organization for Nuclear Research) · Cited by 6,181
Dynamics of a stressful encounter: Cognitive appraisal, coping, and encounter outcomes.
Folkman, S., Lazarus, R. S., Dunkel‐Schetter, C., DeLongis, A., & Gruen, R. J. (1986) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.50.5.992 · Cited by 5,183
Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence.
White, R. W. (1963) · Scott, Foresman eBooks · doi:10.1037/14156-005 · Cited by 4,835

Show all 210 references

Sorted by citations

Items 901–1,000 of 1,002

Successful development and aging : theory and intervention
Steverink, N. (2014) · University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) · Cited by 15
Neural patterns underlying the effect of negative distractors on working memory in older adults
Oren, N., Ash, E. L., Tarrasch, R., Hendler, T., Giladi, N., & Shapira‐Lichter, I. (2017) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2017.01.020 · Cited by 15
Goal (dis)engagement, emotions, and cognitions in an exam situation: A longitudinal study
Bermeitinger, C., Hellweg, C., Andree, C., Roick, J., & Ringeisen, T. (2018) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3379 · Cited by 17
Older kidney transplantation candidates’ expectations of improvement in life and health following kidney transplantation: semistructured interviews with enlisted dialysis patients aged 65 years and older
Lønning, K., Midtvedt, K., Heldal, K., & Andersen, M. H. (2018) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2017-021275 · Cited by 16
“15 We used a lifespan perspective as the framework for this study.(16) Self-esteem is defined as the subjective evaluation of one’s worth; self-esteem increases through adult life until the strengths and limitations of this study”
Method
Primary and secondary control strategies and psychological well-being among familial caregivers of older adults with dementia
Haverstock, N. B., Ruthig, J. C., & Chipperfield, J. G. (2019) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2019.1592095 · Cited by 15
“According to the Lifespan Theory of Control, individuals engage in control strategies for the purpose of goal attainment and to protect against failure to achieve goals (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995), whereas the Two-Process Model of Control conceptualizes the use of control strategies as critical to the maintenance and…”
BackgroundInfluential
Effect of Career Adaptability on Subjective Well-Being of Middle-Aged and Older Employees
Takao, M., & Ishiyama, N. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13052570 · Cited by 19
La participation sociale, une action située entre biographie, histoire et structures
Bickel, J.-F. (2014) · Presses universitaires de Rennes eBooks · doi:10.4000/books.pur.68471 · Cited by 15
Social Cognitive Theories of Personality
Williams, S. L., & Cervone, D. (1998) · The Plenum series in social/clinical psychology · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-8580-4_8 · Cited by 16
Systemic inflammation among breast cancer survivors: the roles of goal disengagement capacities and health-related self-protection
Castonguay, A. L., Wrosch, C., & Sabiston, C. M. (2014) · Psycho-Oncology · doi:10.1002/pon.3489 · Cited by 16
“These items represent self-protective compensatory secondary control strategies [36] that people can use to manage health threats.”
Background
A German Research Program on the Psychosocial Adaptation to Age-Related Vision Impairment
Wahl, H., Schilling, O. K., Becker, S., & Burmedi, D. (2003) · European Psychologist · doi:10.1027//1016-9040.8.3.168 · Cited by 15
Life task appraisals, spouse involvement in strategies, and daily affect among short- and long-term married couples.
Meegan, S. P., & Goedereis, E. A. (2006) · Journal of Family Psychology · doi:10.1037/0893-3200.20.2.319 · Cited by 15
Die Gestaltung und Regulation sozialer Beziehungen im Lebenslauf: Eine entwicklungspsychologische Perspektive
Lang, F. R. (2003) · Berliner Journal für Soziologie · doi:10.1007/bf03204574 · Cited by 15
Control and the Elderly: “Goodness-of-Fit”
Wallace, K. A., & Bergeman, C. S. (1997) · The International Journal of Aging and Human Development · doi:10.2190/t6ac-d0nv-jnk1-xpfm · Cited by 15
Life Span Developmental Psychology
Riffin, C. A., & Löckenhoff, C. E. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-287-082-7_107 · Cited by 16
Students' study activities before and after exam deadlines as predictors of performance in STEM courses: A multi-source data analysis
von Keyserlingk, L., Lauermann, F., Li, Q., Yu, R., Rubach, C., Arum, R., & Heckhausen, J. (2024) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2024.102598 · Cited by 19
Self-citation
Et livsløpsperspektiv på aldring
Thorsen, K. (2005) · Nordisk Psykologi · doi:10.1080/00291463.2005.10637361 · Cited by 16
Preliminary evidence for an increased likelihood of a stable trajectory in mild cognitive impairment in individuals with higher motivational abilities
Thoma, M. V., Forstmeier, S., Schmid, R., Kellner, O., Xepapadakos, F., Schreiter-Gasser, U., Blessing, A., Ropohl, A., Bieri-Brüning, G., Debeer, D., et al. (2018) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-018-0865-5 · Cited by 14
Better Late than Never: A Multilayer Network Model Using Metaplasticity for Emotion Regulation Strategies
Ullah, N., & Jan Treur, A. (2019) · Studies in computational intelligence · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-36683-4_56 · Cited by 13
Teacher educators’ adaptability process when faced with remote teaching
Salinas, D., & Garrido, C. G. (2022) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2022.103890 · Cited by 19
The roles of adaptability and school climate in first-year teachers' developing perceptions of themselves, their classroom relationships, and the career
McLean, L., Taylor, M., & Sandilos, L. E. (2023) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2023.04.003 · Cited by 23
Control-Related Motivations, Capabilities, and Preferences Among Patients
Tangsrud, R., & Smith, M. (2000) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/s0148-2963(98)00091-5 · Cited by 14
“…and passive. is both motivated to and capable of performing appropriate Involvement is a variable that occurs in a variety of forms. behaviors (see Heckhausen and Schulz, 1995; Reich and Zau- Consumer researchers generally agree that sources of involvetra, 1990; Rothbaum, Weisz, and Snyder, 1982).”
Background
Motivation for lifelong learning: a biographical account of efficacy and control
Martin, G. (2012) · International Journal of Lifelong Education · doi:10.1080/02601370.2012.723048 · Cited by 14
Experience of School Transitions
Billett, S. R., Ryan, J., Hay, S., Sim, C., Thomas, S., & Johnson, G. C. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-4198-0 · Cited by 16
Using gerontographics to explain consumer behaviour in later life: evidence from a Thai study
Sthienrapapayut, T., Moschis, G. P., & Mathur, A. (2018) · Journal of Consumer Marketing · doi:10.1108/jcm-02-2017-2083 · Cited by 14
A Cultural Perspective on Functional Limitations and Well-Being
Choi, J. H., Miyamoto, Y., & Ryff, C. D. (2020) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167220905712 · Cited by 18
“Personal control, the belief that people are in control of desired outcomes (Lachman & Weaver, 1998), is known to work as a psychological protective factor in Western cultural context (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995).”
Background
The experience of regret in small business failure: who’s to blame?
Quach, S., Weaven, S. K., Thaichon, P., Grace, D., Frazer, L., & Brown, J. R. (2021) · European Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1108/ejm-12-2019-0917 · Cited by 23
The Self-Regulation of Healthy Aging: Goal-Related Processes in Three Domains
Hennecke, M., Brandstätter, V., & Oettingen, G. (2021) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbab011 · Cited by 15
Psychological processes underlying delusional thinking in late‐onset psychosis: a preliminary investigation
McCulloch, Y., Clare, L., Howard, R. J., & PETERS, E. R. (2006) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.1561 · Cited by 14
“Older people in general appear to adapt their self-concept to maintain positive self-views in the context of negative aspects of the ageing process (Greenwald, 1980; Atchley, 1982; Atchley, 1994; Heckhausen and Schulz, 1995), but for some, the initially adaptive strategy of employing a self-serving bias may lead to de…”
Designing Lives and Empowering Clients: The Case of Sue
Porfeli, E. J. (2003) · The Career Development Quarterly · doi:10.1002/j.2161-0045.2003.tb00611.x · Cited by 14
Exploring the Commonalities Between Adaptive Resources and Self-Enhancement in Older Adults' Comparative Judgments of Physical Activity
Bailis, D. S., Chipperfield, J. G., Perry, R. P., Newall, N. E. G., & Haynes, T. L. (2008) · Journal of Aging and Health · doi:10.1177/0898264308324636 · Cited by 14
“The conceptual relationship between various control-related constructs and self-enhancement is described most fully in the lifespan theory of control, by Heckhausen and Schulz (1995).”
Background
Self-Regulated Learning in Teacher Education- The Significance of Individual Resources and Learning Behaviour
Keller-Schneider, M. (2014) · Cited by 14
Seven Guideposts to the Study of Perceived Control Across the Lifespan
Skinner, E. A. (2016) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190257040.003.0013 · Cited by 15
Revija za elementarno izobraževanje
Duh, M. (2008) · Cited by 14
Upward, Downward, and Horizontal Social Comparisons: Effects on Adjustment, Emotions, and Persistence in Teachers
Rahimi, S., Hall, N. C., Wang, H., & Maymon, R. (2017) · Interdisciplinary Education and Psychology · doi:10.31532/interdiscipeducpsychol.1.1.010 · Cited by 15
Older Parents’ and Middle-Aged Children’s Communication as Predictors of Children’s Successful Aging
Bernhold, Q. S. (2018) · Journal of Language and Social Psychology · doi:10.1177/0261927x18815929 · Cited by 14
Aging and Coping With Mortality
Maxfield, M., & Bevan, A. L. (2019) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-811844-3.00017-2 · Cited by 16
Gerontologia Ambiental: panorama de suas contribuições para a atuação do gerontólogo
Batistoni, S. S. T. (2014) · Revista Brasileira de Geriatria e Gerontologia · doi:10.1590/1809-9823.2014.13088 · Cited by 14
The Impact of Experience and Heuristics on Everyday Decisions to Use Mobility Devices: The Need for Control in Nine African-American Older Adults
Copolillo, A., Collins, C., Randall, N. R., & Cash, S. H. (2001) · Physical & Occupational Therapy In Geriatrics · doi:10.1080/j148v20n02_04 · Cited by 17
“Heckhausen and Schulz (1995) distinguish primary control from secondary control and describe how each contributes to changes in behavior.”
Background
An exploratory investigation of superstitious behaviours, coping, control strategies, and personal control in Ghanaian and British student-athletes
Ofori, P. K., Tod, D., & Lavallee, D. E. (2016) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2016.1142460 · Cited by 14
“Researchers (e.g. Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Ofori, 2013; Rothbaum, Weisz, & Snyder, 1982) contended that when attempts are made to change outcomes instrumentally, the process of control is primary.”
Background
Recalibrational Emotions and the Regulation of Trust-Based BehaviorsPreprint
Schniter, E., & Shields, T. W. (2013) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2268648 · Cited by 13
Older Canadians’ Identity and Well-Being in Retirement
Newton, N. J. (2021) · The International Journal of Aging and Human Development · doi:10.1177/00914150211001586 · Cited by 13
“Specifically, are primary and secondary control (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Rothbaum et al., 1982) potentially related to the identity processes of assimilation and accommodation, respectively?”
Background
Resilienz und posttraumatische Reifung
Fooken, I. (2009) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-88489-7_5 · Cited by 13
The negative handmade effect: How and why control deprivation thwarts desire for handmade products
Song, J.-Q., He, D.-J., & Jiang, Y.-W. (2023) · Psychology & Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.21812 · Cited by 13
Cultural differences in appraisals of control and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms
Jobson, L., Qiu, L. S., Wong, J., Li, H., Lies, J., Lau, W., Bryant, R. A., & Liddell, B. J. (2024) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008066.2024.2358685 · Cited by 13
“A significant focus has been on the role of appraisals of a lack of perceived primary control (i.e. perceived ability to per-sonally change or control a situation; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995) in the context of posttraumatic psychological adjustment (Dunmore et al., 2001; Hancock & Bryant, 2020).”
Background
The life course boat: A theoretical framework for analyzing variation in family lives across time, place, and social location
Fasang, A. E., Gruijters, R. J., & Winkle, Z. V. (2024) · Journal of Marriage and the Family · doi:10.1111/jomf.13012 · Cited by 13
“Agency here refers to the individual values, capacities, choices, and behaviors that affect family outcomes (Heckhausen & Buchmann, 2019; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995).”
Background
A Research Agenda for Family Communication
Hummert, M. L. (2007) · Journal of Family Communication · doi:10.1080/15267430709336666 · Cited by 13
“Increasing age often makes it challenging to maintain that personal control, particularly as individuals become frail (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995).”
BackgroundInfluential
Age and the experience of strong self-conscious emotion
Henry, J. D., von Hippel, W., Nangle, M. R., & Waters, M. (2016) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2016.1268094 · Cited by 13
“This is because strong feelings of shame and guilt are closely related to the experience of regret (Kedia & Hilton, 2011), and regrets appear to take on greater importance in this age group, perhaps because regretted episodes are less easily fixed later on in life (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995).”
Background
Lifespan Perspectives on Successful Aging at Work
Olson, D. A., & Shultz, K. S. (2019) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-812756-8.00009-8 · Cited by 15
Function Self-Efficacy Scale—FSES
Tovel, H., & Carmel, S. (2015) · Research on Aging · doi:10.1177/0164027515596583 · Cited by 21
“In their theory of life-span development, Heckhausen and colleagues (Heckhausen, 1999; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Heckhausen, Wrosch, & Schultz, 2010) claim that control strategies are assumed to be adaptive for goal striving as well as for long-term protection of a person’s motivational resources…”
Background
Extending the Human Life Span: An Exploratory Study of Pro- and Anti-Longevity Attitudes
Kogan, N., Tucker, J., & Porter, M. (2011) · The International Journal of Aging and Human Development · doi:10.2190/ag.73.1.a · Cited by 13
“…of concern to the major theorists of motivational goal setting across the life span (e.g., Brandstaedter & Rothermund, 2002; Freund & Baltes, 2002; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995) for whom the principal issues have generally concerned the impact of aging on maintenance of current goals and the…”
Background
Singlehood and Subjective Well-Being among Mature Gay Men: The Impact of Family, Friends, and of Being “Single by Choice”
Hostetler, A. J. (2012) · Journal of GLBT Family Studies · doi:10.1080/1550428x.2012.705621 · Cited by 16
“Secondary forms of control are vital to well-being across a variety of contexts, and become especially important in later life, but tend to be denigrated and downplayed in individualistic societies such as our own (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995).”
BackgroundInfluential
Pessimistic attributions and coping strategies as predictors of depressive symptoms in people with coronary heart disease
Sanjuán, P., Arranz, H., & Castro, A. (2011) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105311431175 · Cited by 13
“Therefore, effective coping with cardiac disease would include the use of strategies focused both on primary control, which involves modifying the situation, and on secondary control, which involves modifying self-assessment of the situation (Heckhausen and Schulz, 1995; Rothbaum et al., 1982).”
Background
Psychologische Alternsforschung: Beiträge und Perspektiven
Wahl, H., Diehl, M. K., Kruse, A., Lang, F. R., & Martin, M. (2008) · Psychologische Rundschau · doi:10.1026/0033-3042.59.1.2 · Cited by 16
Romantic and Marital Relationships
Bierhoff, H., & Schmohr, M. (2003) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511499852.005 · Cited by 13
Permission Marketing and Commitment: Proposal for a Theoretical Framework Applied to E-Mail Opt-In
Yildiz, H. (2007) · Recherche et Applications en Marketing (English Edition) · doi:10.1177/205157070702200302 · Cited by 13
“In the case of secondary control, the individual comes to terms with the environment and adapts to the world, allowing himself to be “carried along by the current” (Rothbaum, Snyder and Weisz, 1982; Heckhausen and Schulz, 1995).”
Background
Flexible Goal Adjustment from Late Childhood to Late Adolescence: Developmental Differences and Relations to Cognitive Coping and Emotion Regulation
Thomsen, T. (2016) · International Journal of Developmental Science · doi:10.3233/dev-150167 · Cited by 13
“…2009; Brandtst¨adter & Rothermund, 2002); 2. the motivational theory of life-span development (MTD, primary and secondary control processes, Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Heckhausen, Wrosch, & Schulz, 2010); and 3. the model of selection, optimization, and compensation (SOC, Baltes &…”
Influential
Powerful People Feel Less Fear of Negative Evaluation
Cai, W., & Wu, S. (2017) · Social Psychology · doi:10.1027/1864-9335/a000299 · Cited by 14
“It has been established that power is one of the important determinants of personal control (e.g., Fast, Gruenfeld, Sivanathan, & Galinsky, 2009; Guinote, Brown, & Fiske, 2006; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Inesi, Botti, Dubois, Rucker, & Galinsky, 2011).”
Background
A cross-cultural examination of the curvilinear relationship between perceived demands-abilities fit and risk-taking propensity
Astakhova, M. N., Beal, B. D., & Camp, K. M. (2017) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2017.05.030 · Cited by 13
The Value of Adaptive Regret Management in Retirement
Farquhar, J. C., Wrosch, C., Pushkar, D., & Li, K. (2013) · The International Journal of Aging and Human Development · doi:10.2190/ag.76.2.a · Cited by 15
“Many of these theories assume that the consequences of favorable versus unfavorable opportunities for attaining goals and overcoming problems depend on the use of specific self-regulatory processes (e.g., Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Heckhausen et al., 2010; Wrosch, 2011; Wrosch et al., 2003).”
Background
Introduction: Innovating Career Development Using Advances in Life Course and Life-Span Theory
Vondracek, F. W., & Hartung, P. J. (2002) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1006/jvbe.2002.1879 · Cited by 13
“Control theory (Heckhausen and Schulz, 1995) is presented as a means to examine psychological functions as well as social contexts and roles in the transition to adulthood and the world of work. The following two papers represent specific examples of the application of methodological and theoretical advances that expa…”
Background
A reliability and validity study of the meaningful activity participation assessment
Eakman, A. M. (2015) · University of Southern California Digital Library · doi:10.25549/usctheses-m538 · Cited by 13
Development of motivational self-regulation in childhood—An integrative review
Trautner, M., & Pinquart, M. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1533625 · Cited by 16
Lifespan models of athlete development: What have we learned from previous attempts?
Baker, J. R., Gayman, A. M., & Johnston, K. (2023) · Frontiers in Sports and Active Living · doi:10.3389/fspor.2023.1179767 · Cited by 12
Trust is good, control is better: The role of trust and personal control in response to threat
Pauer, S., Rutjens, B. T., & van Harreveld, F. (2024) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.13058 · Cited by 15
Coping with health stresses and remission from late‐life depression in primary care: a two‐year prospective study
Wallace, M. L., Dombrovski, A. Y., Morse, J. Q., Houck, P. R., Frank, E., Alexopoulos, G. S., Reynolds, C. F., & Schulz, R. (2011) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.2706 · Cited by 13
“The lifespan theory of control (Heckhausen and Schulz, 1993, 1995; Schulz and Heckhausen, 1996; Heckhausen et al., 2010) suggests that efforts to actively alter one’s environment and adapt to life changes psychologically are important for successful aging.”
BackgroundSelf-citation
An Integrative Framework of Appraisal and Adaptation in Serious Medical Illness
Bickel, K. E., Levy, C. R., MacPhee, E. R., Brenner, K. O., Temel, J. S., Arch, J. J., & Greer, J. A. (2020) · Journal of Pain and Symptom Management · doi:10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2020.05.018 · Cited by 17
The dynamic effects of retirement on well-being
Kesavayuth, D., Rosenman, R., & Zikos, V. (2020) · Applied Economics · doi:10.1080/00036846.2020.1781770 · Cited by 12
Vulnerability in in-vitro fertilisation transformative services: an interplay of individual and institutional factors
Robertson, N. L., Tsarenko, Y., Polonsky, M. J., & McQuilken, L. (2021) · Journal of Services Marketing · doi:10.1108/jsm-07-2020-0306 · Cited by 12
Self-Determination and Social Comparison in a Health-Promotion Setting
Bailis, D. S., & Segall, A. (2004) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15324834basp2601_3 · Cited by 12
“Insofar as this new situation is threatening to one’s self-concept, social comparison can also be instrumental as a means of maintaining self-esteem and perceived control (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Wood, 1989).”
Background
Successful Ageing A Survey of the Most Important Theories
Tavel, P. (2008) · Human Affairs · doi:10.2478/v10023-008-0018-0 · Cited by 12
Goals and Life Satisfaction of Hong Kong Chinese Older Adults
Au, A. M. L., Ng, E. C. W., Lai, S., Tsien, T., Busch, H., Hofer, J., Lam, C., & Wu, W. (2015) · Clinical Gerontologist · doi:10.1080/07317115.2015.1008117 · Cited by 15
“Similarly, in the life span theory of control, Heckhausen and Schulz (1995) conceptualized primary control as a universal and constant motivational drive throughout life to bring the world to align with personal goals.”
Background
Relationships between perceived aspects of home and symptoms in a cohort aged 67–70
Haak, M., Kylén, M., Ekström, H., Schmidt, S., Horstmann, V., Elmståhl, S., & Iwarsson, S. (2015) · Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics · doi:10.1016/j.archger.2015.06.013 · Cited by 15
“…on the assumption that control beliefs reflect a major driving force in explaining the course and outcome of ageing, the concept housing-related control beliefs derives from psychological theories and studies on perceived control in different domains of life (see e.g., Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995).”
The Mediating Roles of Primary and Secondary Control in the Relationship between Body Satisfaction and Subjective Well-Being Among Middle-Aged and Older Women
Watt, A. D., Konnert, C. A., & Speirs, C. (2015) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbv098 · Cited by 12
“However, the theory also suggests that secondary control strategies are domain specific and that “modes of control are functionally adapted to the potential and constraints that characterize the respective age periods” (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995, p. 291).”
BackgroundResult
Level of choice in older women’s decisions to retire or continue working and associated well-being
Newton, N. J., Chauhan, P. K., Spirling, S., & Stewart, A. J. (2018) · Journal of Women & Aging · doi:10.1080/08952841.2018.1444947 · Cited by 12
“Many researchers provide evidence that a sense of control or choice plays an important role in well-being at all stages of the life course (see, e.g., Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Rothbaum, Weisz, & Snyder, 1982).”
Background
‘Feeling younger, remembering better’: the effect of experimentally induced subjective age on memory performance among Chinese older adults
Shao, J., Xiao, L., Zhang, L., & Xin, Z. (2018) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2018.1523875 · Cited by 13
“According to the life-span theory of control (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995), motives for self-enhancement by way of social comparison are strengthened in order to stabilize self-evaluation because aging is associated with declining resources to manage the environment.”
Method
The Role of Grandchildren’s Own Age-Related Communication and Accommodation From Grandparents in Predicting Grandchildren’s Well-Being
Bernhold, Q. S., & Giles, H. (2019) · The International Journal of Aging and Human Development · doi:10.1177/0091415019852775 · Cited by 14
“In this way, the CEMSA joined other theories and models (e.g., the lifespan theory of control: Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995) in holding that people have some agency over the extent to which they age well.”
Method
Control Orientations in the East and West
Yamaguchi, S., & Sawaumi, T. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190679743.003.0016 · Cited by 12
Social Work with the Older People of Tomorrow: Restoring the Person-in-Situation
Silverstone, B. (2005) · Families in Society The Journal of Contemporary Social Services · doi:10.1606/1044-3894.3428 · Cited by 12
“Within the varying cultural and ethnic groups and cohorts, there is, and will continue to be, significant differences in family relationships and caring patterns and in individual capacities for adaptation honed over a lifetime (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Ruth & Coleman, 1996).”
Background
ACQUAINTANCE RAPE, EGO-IDENTITY ACHIEVEMENT, AND LOCUS OF CONTROL
McEwan, S. L., de Man, A. F., & Simpson‐Housley, P. (2005) · Social Behavior and Personality An International Journal · doi:10.2224/sbp.2005.33.6.587 · Cited by 12
Personal and societal intervention strategies for successful ageing
Friedrich, D. D. (2003) · Ageing International · doi:10.1007/s12126-003-1014-8 · Cited by 12
“In dealing with stressful situations, older individuals, relative to younger ones, are more likely to cope successfully by managing themselves emotionally rather than managing external stressful situations ( Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Schulz & Heckhausen, 1999).”
Background
Self-Regulation and Eudaimonic Well-Being Across Adulthood
Frazier, L. D., Barreto, M. L., & Newman, F. L. (2012) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/0361073x.2012.699367 · Cited by 12
“Optimization strategies designed to increase primary control also increase with age as primary control is threatened (Frazier et al, 2007 ; Freund & Baltes, 1998 ; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995 ).”
Background
Goal engagement and goal attainment in adolescents with and without visual impairment
Pfeiffer, J. P., & Pinquart, M. (2012) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.12.011 · Cited by 12
Perceived control among migrant live-in and local live-out home care workers in Israel
Shinan‐Altman, S., & Ayalon, L. (2017) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2017.1401584 · Cited by 12
“Based on the two-process model of perceived control (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Morling & Evered, 2006), it might be that migrant live-in home care workers maintain primary control through engagement in treatment choices for their care recipient.”
BackgroundMethod
Pain, Functional Disability, and Depressed Affect
Williamson, G. M. (2006) · Kluwer Academic Publishers eBooks · doi:10.1007/0-306-47178-7_4 · Cited by 12
“Similarly, older adults may be less distressed by restriction of normal activities because they have different expectations about functional ability compared to their younger counterparts (e.g., Clark & Maddox, 1992; Demlow et al., 1986; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Schulz & Heckhausen, 1996).”
Background
Ageing and Adaptation
Coleman, P. G., & O’Hanlon, A. (2008) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470773185.ch2 · Cited by 14
The Role of Workplace Control in Positive Health and Wellbeing
Eatough, E. M., & Spector, P. E. (2014) · Well Being · doi:10.1002/9781118539415.wbwell021 · Cited by 15
Personality Development in Adulthood and Old Age
Bertrand, R. M., & Lachman, M. E. (2003) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/0471264385.wei0619 · Cited by 14
Habits of mind and academic endeavors : The correlates and consequences of achievement goal orientations
Niemivirta, M. (2004) · Työväentutkimus Vuosikirja · Cited by 12
Conflicted Minds: Recalibrational Emotions Following Trust-Based InteractionPreprint
Eric Schniter, A., Sheremeta, R. M., & Shields, T. W. (2011) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1937822 · Cited by 12
Commentary: goal disengagement—past, processes, and future
Heckhausen, J., & Wrosch, C. (2022) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-022-09981-y · Cited by 12
“Introduction Over the past three decades, conceptual and empirical research has provided substantial support for the idea that goal disengagement is a necessary and adaptive response when people confront unattainable goals (Brandtstädter & Renner, 1990; Heckhausen, Wrosch, & Schulz, (Heckhausen & Schulz 1995) , 2010,…”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citation
Fatalistic Beliefs, Cultural Beliefs and Socio-Instrumental Control Beliefs: What are the Links? Can We Speak of an Active Fatalism?
Ngueutsa, R., Tchagneno, C. L. G., Wassouo, E., & Kouabénan, D. R. (2023) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941231153799 · Cited by 12
“This result corroborates the work of Heckhausen and Schulz (1995) for whom beliefs in general - and therefore cultural beliefs included - help the indivudal to develop a perceived control over his/her life events.”
Body alteration: On the mental function of body modification and body decoration
Weiler, S. M., Mühlenbeck, C., & Jacobsen, T. (2024) · Culture & Psychology · doi:10.1177/1354067x241242414 · Cited by 13
“…in downward social comparisons, for instance, in stressful environments and circumstances where one has little control (Bailis et al., 2005; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Suls et al., 2002; Suls & Wheeler, 2000), as well as for well-being in adult populations (Chipper ﬁ eld & Perry, 2006;…”
Autonomous Motivation, Self-Efficacy, and Developmental Regulation Processes in Distance Education Across Diverse Age Groups
Yaban, E. H., & Gaschler, R. (2025) · American Journal of Distance Education · doi:10.1080/08923647.2025.2484047 · Cited by 13
“We employed the Optimization in Primary and Secondary Control (OPS) Scales (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995), the Selective Optimization with Compensation (SOC) Questionnaire (Freund & Baltes, 2002), and the Tenacious Goal Pursuit and Flexible Goal Adjustment (Tenflex) Scales (J. Brandtstädter & Renner,…”
Influential
Include, Individualize, and Integrate HRM Practices for Successful Aging at Work: Scale Development and Test of a Model
Chong, J. X. Y., Andrei, D. M., Tian, A. W., & Parker, S. K. (2025) · Human Resource Management · doi:10.1002/hrm.22301 · Cited by 12
Showing engagement or not: The influence of social identification and group deadlines on individual control strategies
Woltin, K., & Sassenberg, K. (2014) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430214542254 · Cited by 11
“The two studies reported here demonstrate that self-control strategies suggested for deadline phases of individual goal pursuit (Heckhausen, 1999; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Schulz & Heckhausen, 1996) also apply to the social self when it is central to individuals’ identity.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Levels and change in autonomous and controlled work motivation in older workers—The role of proximity to retirement and sense of community at work
Henning, G., Stenling, A., Tafvelin, S., Ebener, M., & Lindwall, M. (2022) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/joop.12406 · Cited by 11
Development of a psychological intervention to promote meaningful activity in people living with mild dementia: an intervention mapping approach.
Orgeta, V., Palpatzis, E., See, Y. N., Tuijt, R., Verdaguer, E. S., & Leung, P. (2022) · The Gerontologist · doi:10.1093/geront/gnab047 · Cited by 9
Grundlagen der Sozialen Gerontologie
Kricheldorff, C., Aner, K., Himmelsbach, I., & Thiesemann, R. (2015) · Zeitschrift für Gerontologie und Geriatrie · doi:10.1007/s00391-015-0963-3 · Cited by 8
“Neuere Ansätze tragen dagegen eher der individuellen Verschiedenheit des Alternsprozesses Rechnung, wie beispielsweise das Zweiprozessmodell von Brandstädter und Renner [39] und das Modell der primären und sekundären Kontrolle von Heckhausen und Schulz [40].”
BackgroundInfluential
The Social Costs of Underemployment: Inadequate Employment as Disguised Unemployment
Dooley, D., & Prause, J. (2003) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511499562 · Cited by 4
Untitled work
(2010) · doi:10.5555/1734454.1734544 · Cited by 163

Authors: Heckhausen, J., & Schulz, R.
Affiliations: Max Planck Institute for Human Development (DE)
ORCID: Heckhausen, Jutta
Venue: Psychological Review
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1995
Volume: 102
Issue: 2
Pages: 284-304
ISSN: 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
1939-1471
DOI: 10.1037/0033-295x.102.2.284
OpenAlex: W2130212806
Semantic Scholar: 155e1d5e2cf570e3b465d059e2f5941c94d12c5b
Cited by: 1,844
References: 210
Citations by year: 2026: 37 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 60 · 2023: 46 · 2022: 50 · 2021: 72 · 2020: 59 · 2019: 87 · 2018: 65 · 2017: 68 · 2016: 72 · 2015: 87 · 2014: 73 · 2013: 73 · 2012: 96
FWCI: 55.83
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (5r01mh041887-03)
National Institute on Aging (AG-05444)
National Institute of Mental Health (MH41887)
National Cancer Institute (CA 48635, R01CA048635)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Optimism, Hope, and Well-being
Keywords: lifespan development, primary control, secondary control, coping with failure, motivational resources, action goals, developmental trade-offs, life course, old age
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aging, Child, Child, Preschool, Defense Mechanisms, Female, Humans, Infant, Internal-External Control, Male, Middle Aged, Personality Development, Social Perception, Social Values

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

A life-span theory of control.

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks