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A life-span theory of control.
Abstract
A life-span theory of development is presented that is based on the concepts of primary and secondary control. Primary control refers to behaviors directed at the external environment and involves attempts to change the world to fit the needs and desires of the individual. Secondary control is targeted at internal processes and serves to minimize losses in, maintain, and expand existing levels of primary control. Secondary control helps the individual to cope with failure and fosters primary control by channeling motivational resources toward selected action goals throughout the life course. Primary control has functional primacy over secondary control. An analysis of extensive and diverse literatures spanning infancy through old age shows that trade-offs between primary and secondary control undergo systematic shifts across the life course in response to the opportunities and constraints encountered.
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“Literature suggests that the internal locus of control may increase until middle age, decreasing thereafter [20, 21].”
From Health anxiety, coping mechanisms and COVID 19: An Indian community sample at week 1 of lockdown (2021) · cites this paper as [20]
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Swift, A., & TATE, R. B. (2013) · Journal of Aging Studies · doi:10.1016/j.jaging.2013.09.004 · Cited by 22
“In keeping with Heckhausen and Schulz's (1995) notion of the “primacy of primary [over secondary] control”, the overall Primary control mapping category included not only those successful aging narratives indicative of MFUS members having taken direct action to age successfully (Primary control proper; n = 32 themes),…”
BackgroundInfluentialAntecedents of the expectation of remaining in nursing until retirement age
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“In their life-span theory of control, Heckhausen and Schulz (1995) postulate that individuals are motivated by the control they have over their environment.”
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“One important reason for this divergence is that older adults may have the advantage of responding more flexibly to the failure of goals than younger adults (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995), which is relevant in that thought suppression efforts almost invariably fail to some extent.”
BackgroundInfluentialBailis, D. S., Chipperfield, J. G., & Helgason, T. R. (2008) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.12.028 · Cited by 21
“The second stream describes the nature and implications of striving for control over the lifespan (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995).”
BackgroundGoal Commitment to Finding a Partner and Satisfaction with Life among Female Singles
Gebhardt, W. A., van der Doef, M., Massey, E. K., Verhoeven, C., & Verkuil, B. (2010) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105309346212 · Cited by 21
“Additionally, according to the life-span developmental perspective (Cantor, 1990; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Nurmi, 2004; Settersten & Hagestad, 1996), within societies normative views exist on when certain life-tasks need to be accomplished, including starting a career, finding a partner, having…”
BackgroundUnitary Social Science for Causal Understanding: Experiences and Prospects of Life Course Research
Diewald, M. (2001) · Canadian Studies in Population · doi:10.25336/p6ms41 · Cited by 19
“Theories of adaptive coping (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984) or developmental regulation (Heckhausen and Schulz, 1995) make evident that stability or changes in orientations are often alternatives to stability or change in overt behaviors.”
Life‐Span Perspectives on Positive Personality Development in Adulthood and Old Age
Staudinger, U. M., & Bowen, C. E. (2010) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470880166.hlsd002008 · Cited by 21
Eriksson, E., Wazinski, K., Wanka, A., Kylén, M., Oswald, F., Slaug, B., Iwarsson, S., & Schmidt, S. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192013314 · Cited by 20
“Having control over one’s environment is considered crucial for human development across the life course [7].”
BackgroundWang, K., Chen, X. S., Kang, S.-Y., Smith, B. D., & Gu, D. (2024) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.116988 · Cited by 20
Don’t Surprise Me: How Social Relationships Shape Consumers’ Attitudes toward Probabilistic Selling
Fan, L., & Jiang, Y. (2018) · Journal of the Association for Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/698328 · Cited by 20
“The feeling of a lack of personal control is threatening and aversive (Heckhausen and Schulz 1995), and it activates a defensive mechanism in which people actively strive to preserve the sense of order and nonrandomness through various coping strategies, such as bolstering personal agency,…”
Backgroundvon Keyserlingk, L., Rubach, C., Lee, H. R., Eccles, J. S., & Heckhausen, J. (2022) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-022-09957-y · Cited by 27
“The authors of the MTD (Heckhausen et al., 2010, 2019; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995) describe a set of strategies that can be classified into broad categories of motivational function, being either conducive to goal engagement or goal adjustment and disengagement.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationAltern im Gemeinwesen aus sozialgerontologischer Perspektive
Kricheldorff, C. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-06600-0_2 · Cited by 20
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“Likewise, individuals with high control orientation (similar to impact) have been found to more actively search for information and opportunities to act in order to achieve a given goal (Heckhausen and Schulz 1995; Ashford and Tsui 1991).”
BackgroundVaughan, E., & Dunton, G. F. (2007) · Health Risk & Society · doi:10.1080/13698570701486054 · Cited by 20
“Heckhausen and Schultz (1995) presented compelling arguments and summarized substantial empirical evidence supporting the notion that throughout the lifespan, aspirations for and beliefs about control over important outcomes is a primary motivational force for individuals.”
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“This study examines changes in control strategy use in older adults with visual impairment due to age-related macular degeneration (AMD), framed within the lifespan theory of control (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Heckhausen, Wrosch, & Schulz, 2010).”
BackgroundNicolaisen, M., Moum, T., & Thorsen, K. (2017) · Journal of Aging and Health · doi:10.1177/0898264317705782 · Cited by 26
“Their coping activities may be more focused on selected goals, and on regulating emotions rather than acting toward the environment (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995).”
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“However, either the SOC model [Baltes & Baltes, 1990; Freund, Li, & Baltes, 1999] or the life span theory of control [Heckhausen, 1999; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995] could equally be used as frame of reference; otherwise, the attempt to Personal and Subpersonal Regulation of Human Development 203Human…”
MethodLearning from a Natural Experiment: Studying a Corporate Work-Time Policy Initiative.
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‘Getting Up from Here’: Frail Older Women's Experiences After Falling
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Opening Versus Closing Strategies in Controlling One’s Responses to Experience
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The plans, goals, and concerns of pre-emancipated youth in foster care
Lemus, D., Farruggia, S. P., Germo, G., & Chang, E. S. (2017) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.05.003 · Cited by 19
Luo, M. S., Li, L., & Chui, E. W. T. (2020) · Journal of Aging and Health · doi:10.1177/0898264320917303 · Cited by 31
“The life span developmental theory of control (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995) implies that older adults’ control beliefs are inseparable from the control process developed in childhood and adolescence.”
Background“If I Get Locked Up, I Get Locked Up”: Secondary Control and Adjustment among Juvenile Offenders
Halliday, C. A., & Graham, S. (2000) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167200267003 · Cited by 17
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Thompson, S. C. G., Schlehofer, M. M., Bovin, M. J., Dougan, B. T., Montes, D., & Trifskin, S. (2006) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615800600615891 · Cited by 20
“In this case, the concepts of primary and secondary control (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Rothbaum, Weisz, & Snyder, 1982; Thompson, Nanni, & Levine, 1994) provide a context for understanding reactions to a negative life event.”
BackgroundStabilisation of health as the centre point of a health psychology of ageing
Scholz, U., König, C., Eicher, S., & Martin, M. (2015) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2014.991733 · Cited by 20
“HECS represent three of the four control strategies of the MTD applied in the health context: first, the investment of time and effort in achieving health goals (selective primary control); second, the search for help, when problems occur (compensatory primary control); and third, the enhancement of commitment towards…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialThe construct formerly known as secondary control: Reply to Skinner (2007).
Morling, B., & Evered, S. (2007) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.133.6.917 · Cited by 19
“Changing the self to maintain one’s ability for primary control is potentially secondary in the three ways Skinner has outlined ( Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995 ).”
BackgroundHaratsis, J. M., Creed, P. A., & Hood, M. (2015) · International Journal for Educational and Vocational Guidance · doi:10.1007/s10775-015-9301-y · Cited by 19
“The lifespan theory of control (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995) and the dual-process framework (Brandtstädter & Renner, 1990) meet these criteria.”
BackgroundThe self-attribution bias and paranormal beliefs
van Elk, M. (2017) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2017.02.001 · Cited by 19
“It has been found that the illusion of control decreases with increased age, possibly suggesting that in the case of young children it may be adaptive to have a fundamental motivation to aim to control their environment (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; van Elk et al., 2015).”
BackgroundParker, P. C., Perry, R. P., Hamm, J. M., Chipperfield, J. G., Hladkyj, S., & Leboe-McGowan, L. C. (2017) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2017.12.002 · Cited by 25
Warmth and competence predict overoptimistic beliefs for out-group but not in-group members
Dricu, M., Bührer, S., Hesse, F., Eder, C., Posada, A., & Aue, T. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0207670 · Cited by 18
Gentile, D. A., Sweet, D. M., & He, L. (2019) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-019-00100-2 · Cited by 20
Wu, W. C. H., Chen, S. X., & Ng, J. C. K. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17176383 · Cited by 20
“By accepting that the outcome is beyond personal control, these individuals lower their expectation of success as well as the importance of meeting their goals [48], or by attributing failure to uncontrollable factors [49].”
BackgroundA Biosocial Model of Affective Decision Making
Kitayama, S., & Tompson, S. (2015) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2015.04.001 · Cited by 25
“Over the last two decades, many psychologists have been fascinated by selfcontrol and the failure thereof (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Kross, Ayduk, & Mischel, 2005; Mischel, Shoda, & Rodriguez, 1989).”
BackgroundStaudinger, U. M., & Greve, W. (2001) · VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-663-11019-4_4 · Cited by 19
Dietz, F., Schmid, S., & Fries, S. (2005) · Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie · doi:10.1024/1010-0652.19.3.173 · Cited by 19
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Katzko, M. W., Steverink, N., Dittmann‐Kohli, F., & Herrera, R. R. (1998) · The International Journal of Aging and Human Development · doi:10.2190/hgak-bhja-cgld-rae7 · Cited by 19
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“, between 45 and 65 years) and stabilizes until retirement from work [31].”
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Christensen, J. O., & Knardahl, S. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1015313 · Cited by 27
“Another lifespan theory, pertaining specifically to the concept of control, is the life-span theory of control (Heckhausen and Schulz, 1995; Heckhausen et al., 2010).”
BackgroundAuswirkungen Der Familiengründung Auf Den Berufsverlauf Von Männern
Pollmann-Schult, M., & Diewald, M. (2007) · KZfSS Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie · doi:10.1007/s11577-007-0056-4 · Cited by 26
Thomsen, T. G., Hansen, S. R., & Wagner, L. (2011) · Journal of Psychosocial Oncology · doi:10.1080/07347332.2011.563345 · Cited by 18
“…as primary and secondary control, where primary control relates to gaining control by bringing the environment into line with the patient’s wishes, whereas secondary control relates to bringing themselves into line with the environment (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Rothbaum, Weisz, & Snyder, 1982).”
BackgroundHennecke, M., & Freund, A. M. (2010) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0019935 · Cited by 22
Women’s Regrets About Their Lives: Cohort Differences in Correlates and Contents
Newton, N. J., Torges, C. M., & Stewart, A. J. (2012) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-012-0126-6 · Cited by 18
“Developmental theories characterize this age-related shift from external-focused to internal-focused processes as moving from primary control or assimilative coping in younger adulthood to secondary control or accommodative coping in later adulthood (Brandtstädter 1999; Heckhausen and Schulz 1995; Rothermund and Brand…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialAdjustment Processes in Bridge Employment: Where We Are and Where We Need To Go
Rudolph, C. W., de Lange, A. H., & HEIJDEN, B. I. J. M. V. D. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-08007-9_13 · Cited by 20
Shane, J., & Heckhausen, J. (2012) · Research in Human Development · doi:10.1080/15427609.2012.729918 · Cited by 19
“Although the need for primary control remains at a stable-high level across the life span, an individual’s capacity to exert primary control over his or her environment follows an inverted U-shaped trajectory, peaking in midlife (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationA motivation-enhancing treatment to sustain goal engagement during life course transitions
Hamm, J. M., Perry, R. P., Chipperfield, J. G., Heckhausen, J., & Parker, P. C. (2016) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-016-9576-4 · Cited by 18
“Further, the MTLD contends that selective secondary control ultimately serves to promote selective primary control striving (Heckhausen et al. 2010).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationZimmermann, S., & Forstmeier, S. (2018) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2018.1525608 · Cited by 20
“…of selection, optimization and compensation (“SOC”, Baltes & Baltes, 1990; Baltes & Carstensen, 1996), the theory of primary and secondary control (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995), socio-emotional selectivity (Carstensen, 1995) and accommodation and assimilation (Brandtst€adter & Rothermund, 2002).”
BackgroundThe Adaptation Process of Aging
Nikitin, J., & Freund, A. M. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316677018.018 · Cited by 24
Boals, A., Jayawickreme, E., & Park, C. L. (2022) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2022.2109200 · Cited by 22
“Research has suggested that people employ secondary control to compensate for loss or as a strategy to maintain a sense of control after attempts at gaining primary control have failed (Heckhausen, 1997; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995).”
BackgroundEthnic Identity and Subjective Wellbeing: Connections and Possibilities
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Self-citationSome Predictors of Primary Control of Development in Three Transitional Periods of Life
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“That is a specific “agreement” with the world via accommodation (Brandst ¨ adter & Greve, 1994), but at the same time a reassessment of gains and losses or secondary control ( Heckhausen & Schultz, 1995 ) or passive mastery (Gutmann, 1964).”
BackgroundInfluentialSchindler, I., & Staudinger, U. M. (2008) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-007-9078-5 · Cited by 18
“…less relevant and yielding qualities (e.g., adapting goals to changed circumstances, reevaluating the situation) are more relevant to the wellbeing of individuals with few resources (e.g., Brandtstädter and Greve 1994; Heckhausen and Schulz 1995; Schulz and Heckhausen 1996; Wrosch et al. 2003).”
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Adaptation across the Lifespan: Towards a Processual Evolutionary Explanation of Human Development
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“…difficulties of this perspective (e.g., with respect to personality inventories: Brandt et al., 2020): not rarely, studies and paper still focus largely on adulthood (e.g., Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Heckhausen et al., 2010, 2019, on control) and thus do not investigate the entire lifespan.”
BackgroundPolitical Efficacy und Wahlbeteiligung in Ost- und Westdeutschland
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Retirement Transition in Ballet Dancers: "Coping Within and Coping Without"
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“Previous studies suggest that continued activities may enhance the well-being of retirees, for examples, in life satisfaction (Antonucci, 2001; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, & Schkade, 2005; Nimrod & Kleiber, 2007; Tkach & Lyubomirsky, 2006), and emotional, cognitive and social…”
BackgroundEngineering Motivation Using the Belief-Expectancy-Control Framework
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Life satisfaction in late life: Markers and predictors of level and change among 80+ year olds
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“For instance, in young children at home an over-estimation of the amount of control over the environment may be adaptive, as they still need to learn which aspects of their environment can be controlled, but may become maladaptive during adolescence, leading to increased risk taking (Heckhausen and Schulz 1995).”
BackgroundSelenko, E., & Pils, K. (2016) · Economic and Industrial Democracy · doi:10.1177/0143831x16653186 · Cited by 18
“Younger people might also possess fewer regulatory abilities to start with, as those are partly determined by age (e.g. Heckhausen and Schulz, 1995).”
BackgroundAge differences in emotional responses to monetary losses and gains.
de Bruin, W. B., van Putten, M., van Emden, R., & Strough, J. (2018) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/pag0000219 · Cited by 17
“These coping strategies have also been referred to as secondary control strategies, because they focus on minimizing emotional responses to adverse events, while primary control strategies focus on reducing the experience of adverse events (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995).”
InfluentialBarros, S., & Albert, I. (2020) · Identity · doi:10.1080/15283488.2020.1832491 · Cited by 15
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“AARC is also believed to influence development indirectly through the operation of self-regulatory processes (see Baltes, 1997; Brandtstädter, 2009; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995).”
BackgroundToyoshima, A., & Kusumi, T. (2021) · Innovation in Aging · doi:10.1093/geroni/igab054 · Cited by 20
Effects of Culture and Age on the Perceived Exchange of Social Support Resources
VonDras, D. D., Pouliot, G. S., Malcore, S. A., & Iwahashi, S. (2008) · The International Journal of Aging and Human Development · doi:10.2190/ag.67.1.d · Cited by 16
“…shift refers to a reorientation where there is decrease in behaviors directed at effecting the external environment, and, concomitantly, a greater inner focus and adjustment of personal values and goal expectations so as to cope with the various declines of old age (cf. Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995).”
BackgroundBailly, N., Hervé, C., Joulain, M., & Alaphilippe, D. (2011) · European Review of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.erap.2011.09.005 · Cited by 16
Ai, A. L., Corley, C., Peterson, C., Huang, B., & Tice, T. N. (2009) · Social Work in Health Care · doi:10.1080/00981380802589829 · Cited by 16
“According to the secondary control theory (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995), we assumed a pathway between prayer and active coping.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialWindsor, T. D., Pearson, E. L., & Butterworth, P. (2012) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2012.07.002 · Cited by 21
Societal values and school motivation. Students’ goals in different life domains
Hofer, M., & Peetsma, T. T. D. (2005) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/bf03173552 · Cited by 16
“The question how people form goals, how they behave to achieve them and how they deal with goal conflicts is a well-researched area within social psychology (e.g., Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Shah & Kruglanski, 2002; Wrosch, Scheier, Carver, & Schulz, 2003).”
BackgroundEffects of early relationships on children’s perceived control: A longitudinal study
Dan, O., Sagi‐Schwartz, A., Bar‐Haim, Y., & Eshel, Y. (2011) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025411406862 · Cited by 16
“Indeed, Heckhausen and Schulz (1995) suggested that secondary control often serves as a compensatory mechanism for failure in primary control (Haynes, Heckhausen, Chipperfield, Perry, & Newall, 2009).”
BackgroundHyvönen, K., Feldt, T., Kinnunen, U. M., & Tolvanen, A. J. (2011) · Work & Stress · doi:10.1080/02678373.2012.630587 · Cited by 19
“Since personal goals are influenced by social, cultural, and historical life contexts (e.g., Baltes, 1997; Freund & Riediger, 2006; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995), which may change over time, previous personal goal research has also noted changes in goals across the life span.”
BackgroundElternunterstützung im Berufswahlprozess
Neuenschwander, M. P. (2008) · Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) · doi:10.26041/fhnw-344 · Cited by 16
Cherry, K. E., Lyon, B. A., Boudreaux, E. O., Blanchard, A., Hicks, J. L., Elliott, E. M., Myers, L., Kim, S., & Jazwinski, S. M. (2019) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/0361073x.2018.1560107 · Cited by 16
“Similarly, Heckhausen and Schultz’s (1995) Lifespan Theory of Control assumes that people are motivated to gain”
BackgroundMethodControl Motivation, Depression, and Counterfactual Thought
Markman, K. D., & Weary, G. (1998) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-2901-6_15 · Cited by 16
Geary, D. C. (2004) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.20089 · Cited by 15
“…a basic motivation to achieve some level of control over relationships, events, and resources that are of significance in their life (Fiske, 1993; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Shapiro, Schwartz, & Astin, 1996; Taylor & Brown, 1988; Thompson, Armstrong, & Thomas, 1998), although there is no…”
BackgroundRetirement decisions in the context of the abolishment of mandatory retirement
Warren, A. M., & Kelloway, E. K. (2010) · International Journal of Manpower · doi:10.1108/01437721011050585 · Cited by 16
Why people use, abuse, and become dependent on drugs: Progress toward a heuristic model.
Pandina, R. J., & Johnson, V. L. (1999) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10341-006 · Cited by 16
Psychophysiological Bases of Disease
Steptoe, A. (1998) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b0080-4270(73)00086-9 · Cited by 17
Male, Female: The Evolution of Human Sex Differences.
Jenike, M. R. (2000) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/s1090-5138(00)00033-7 · Cited by 16
Predictors of underachieved and overachieved fertility among women with completed fertility in Ghana
Yeboah, I., Kwankye, S. O., & Frempong-Ainguah, F. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0250881 · Cited by 15
“These include the theory of planned behaviour [27], the classical rational choice model [28], and the life-span theory of control [29].”
BackgroundControl perceptions and control appraisal: Relation to measures of subjective well-being
Owusu-Ansah, F. (2009) · Ghana Medical Journal · doi:10.4314/gmj.v42i2.43597 · Cited by 15
“Tenacious engagement of the environment through one’s own efforts is selective primary control and the use of secondary resources to alter the environment and attain goals is called compensatory primarycontrol.(18) Selective and compensatory controls are together referred to as primary control.”
BackgroundCross-Cultural Psychology of Aging
Fung, H. H.-L., & Jiang, D. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-411469-2.00017-0 · Cited by 17
Success inhibits preschoolers’ ability to establish selective trust
Palmquist, C. M., Jaswal, V. K., & Rutherford, A. V. (2016) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2016.07.015 · Cited by 15
Metadata
- Authors
- Heckhausen, J., & Schulz, R.
- Affiliations
- Max Planck Institute for Human Development (DE)
- ORCID
- Heckhausen, Jutta
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1995
- Volume
- 102
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 284-304
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2130212806
- Semantic Scholar
- 155e1d5e2cf570e3b465d059e2f5941c94d12c5b
- Cited by
- 1,844
- References
- 210
- Citations by year
- 2026: 37 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 60 · 2023: 46 · 2022: 50 · 2021: 72 · 2020: 59 · 2019: 87 · 2018: 65 · 2017: 68 · 2016: 72 · 2015: 87 · 2014: 73 · 2013: 73 · 2012: 96
- FWCI
- 55.83
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5r01mh041887-03)
- National Institute on Aging (AG-05444)
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH41887)
- National Cancer Institute (CA 48635, R01CA048635)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Optimism, Hope, and Well-being
- Keywords
- lifespan development, primary control, secondary control, coping with failure, motivational resources, action goals, developmental trade-offs, life course, old age
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aging, Child, Child, Preschool, Defense Mechanisms, Female, Humans, Infant, Internal-External Control, Male, Middle Aged, Personality Development, Social Perception, Social Values
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