The DOI matches its Crossref record; 210 of the 210 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
A life-span theory of control.
Abstract
A life-span theory of development is presented that is based on the concepts of primary and secondary control. Primary control refers to behaviors directed at the external environment and involves attempts to change the world to fit the needs and desires of the individual. Secondary control is targeted at internal processes and serves to minimize losses in, maintain, and expand existing levels of primary control. Secondary control helps the individual to cope with failure and fosters primary control by channeling motivational resources toward selected action goals throughout the life course. Primary control has functional primacy over secondary control. An analysis of extensive and diverse literatures spanning infancy through old age shows that trade-offs between primary and secondary control undergo systematic shifts across the life course in response to the opportunities and constraints encountered.
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“Literature suggests that the internal locus of control may increase until middle age, decreasing thereafter [20, 21].”
From Health anxiety, coping mechanisms and COVID 19: An Indian community sample at week 1 of lockdown (2021) · cites this paper as [20]
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Age, Education, and the Gender Gap in the Sense of Control
Slagsvold, B., & Sørensen, A. (2008) · The International Journal of Aging and Human Development · doi:10.2190/ag.67.1.b · Cited by 71
“The relationship between actual opportunity for control and control beliefs is well established (e.g., Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Mirowsky & Ross, 1998; 2002; Pearlin et al., 1981), and has been demonstrated both in experimental studies (Bandura & Wood, 1989; Langer & Rodin, 1976; Reich & Zautra,…”
BackgroundCarmel, S., & Bernstein, J. H. (2003) · The International Journal of Aging and Human Development · doi:10.2190/87yh-45qn-48ty-9hn8 · Cited by 65
“All these findings are in line with the current theories of successful aging, which relate critical importance to the elderly people’s ability to control their environment (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Schulz & Heckhausen, 1996).”
ResultThe relationship between qualitative job insecurity and OCB: Differences across age groups
Stynen, D., Forrier, A., Sels, L., & Witte, H. D. (2013) · Economic and Industrial Democracy · doi:10.1177/0143831x13510326 · Cited by 68
“And in the face of resource constraints at older age, lifespan theory of control (Heckhausen and Schulz, 1995) suggests that instead of relying on active, behavioural oriented control strategies (i.e. primary control) such as increased effort, older individuals will rely more on active, but less…”
BackgroundWhat about time? Examining chronological and subjective age and their relation to work motivation
Akkermans, J., de Lange, A. H., HEIJDEN, B. I. J. M. V. D., Kooij, D. T. A. M., Jansen, P. G. W., & Dikkers, J. (2016) · Career Development International · doi:10.1108/cdi-04-2016-0063 · Cited by 73
“Indeed, according to SST, an open-ended view on remaining opportunities and time is associated with making use of primary control strategies directed toward actions that modify external circumstances and, thereby, increased levels of extrinsic motivation (Heckhausen and Schulz, 1995).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialLopez, D. F. (1999) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s1041-6080(99)80005-3 · Cited by 65
Gould, S. J. (1999) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.106.3.597 · Cited by 65
Action Regulation Across the Adult Lifespan (ARAL): A Metatheory of Work and Aging
Zacher, H., Hacker, W., & Fresé, M. (2016) · Work Aging and Retirement · doi:10.1093/workar/waw015 · Cited by 68
Thinking about my generation: Adaptive effects of a dual age identity in later adulthood.
Weiss, D. J., & Lang, F. R. (2009) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0016339 · Cited by 63
“Consequently, selection, identification, and dissociation represent a central secondary control strategy in later adulthood (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995).”
Bozo, Ö., Tunca, A., & Simsek, Y. (2009) · The Journal of psychology · doi:10.3200/jrlp.143.4.377-389 · Cited by 57
Pathways to retirement: A career stage analysis of retirement age expectations
Post, C. A., Schneer, J. A., Reitman, F., & ogilvie, D. (2013) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/0018726712465657 · Cited by 63
“Retirement attitudes, that is, the extent to which one perceives retirement as the relinquishing of personal control, also influence retirement decisions (Barnes-Farrell, 2003; Heckhausen and Schulz, 1995).”
BackgroundVogel, N., Schilling, O. K., Wahl, H., Beekman, A. T. F., & Penninx, B. W. J. H. (2012) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0030471 · Cited by 63
Flammer, A. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.25033-2 · Cited by 63
O'Connor, R. C., Fraser, L., Whyte, M.-C., MacHale, S., & Masterton, G. (2009) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2008.11.001 · Cited by 62
“In recent decades there has been considerable interest in understanding self-regulation (e.g., Baumeister & Vohs, 2004; Carver & Scheier, 1998, 1981; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Hoyle, Kernis, Leary, & Baldwin, 1999), defined as ‘‘the many processes by which the psyche exercises control over its functions, states and i…”
BackgroundRevisiting experiential values of shopping: consumers' self and identity
Woodruffe‐Burton, H., & Wakenshaw, S. Y. L. (2011) · Marketing Intelligence & Planning · doi:10.1108/02634501111102760 · Cited by 62
“Indeed, it has been generally accepted that humans desire to control outcomes by acting in ways to achieve their goals ( Heckhausen and Schulz, 1995”
BackgroundThe role of adaptability in promoting control and reducing failure dynamics: A mediation model
Martin, A. J., Nejad, H. G., Colmar, S., Liem, G. A. D., & Collie, R. J. (2015) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2015.02.004 · Cited by 64
Age, stress, and emotional complexity: Results from two studies of daily experiences.
Scott, S., Sliwinski, M. J., Mogle, J. A., & Almeida, D. M. (2014) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0037282 · Cited by 71
Falchetti, C., Ponchio, M. C., & Botelho, N. L. P. (2015) · Journal of Marketing Management · doi:10.1080/0267257x.2015.1119710 · Cited by 62
“People experiencing vulnerability are not passive individuals; on the contrary, they use cognitive, emotional and behavioural strategies to manage their situations (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995).”
BackgroundKitayama, S., Park, J., Miyamoto, Y., Date, H., Boylan, J. M., Markus, H. R., Karasawa, M., Kawakami, N., Coe, C. L., Love, G. D., et al. (2018) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167217748603 · Cited by 59
“Behavioral adjustment, in contrast, places a greater emphasis on more active forms of adjustment, involving behavioral changes in accordance with environmental demands (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995).”
Entity versus incremental theories predict older adults’ memory performance.
Plaks, J. E., & Chasteen, A. L. (2013) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0034348 · Cited by 68
A Lifespan Perspective on Creativity and Innovation at Work
Rietzschel, E. F., Zacher, H., & Stroebe, W. (2016) · Work Aging and Retirement · doi:10.1093/workar/waw005 · Cited by 63
Moschis, G. P. (2017) · Journal of Marketing Management · doi:10.1080/0267257x.2017.1347341 · Cited by 61
“…John, 1999; Mortimer & Simmons, 1978), stress processes (both acute and chronic stress; Thoits, 1995) and coping responses (primary and secondary; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995), or changes (development/growth or decline) in human capital (knowledge and mastery; Bolger, Avshalom, Downey, &…”
BackgroundStatus update: Gratifications derived from Facebook affordances by older adults
Jung, E. H., & Sundar, S. S. (2018) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/1461444818768090 · Cited by 61
“When the aforementioned correlation between conversational activities (comments and replies) and interaction gratification is juxtaposed with the finding from Jung and Sundar (2016a) that message-interactivity features, such as chatting, play a vital role in greater Facebook use among older adults, a theoretical mecha…”
BackgroundBühler, J. L., Weidmann, R., Nikitin, J., & Grob, A. (2019) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2194 · Cited by 76
“…tend to invest more heavily in the goal pursuit and to intentionally modify the situation (assimilation mode or primary control strategies; Brandtstädter & Rothermund, 2002; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Heckhausen et al., 1998; Rothermund & Brandtstädter, 2003; Wrosch, Heckhausen, & Lachman, 2000).”
BackgroundPsychosocial Adaptation to Age-related Vision Loss: A Six-year Perspective
Heyl, V., & Wahl, H. (2001) · Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness · doi:10.1177/0145482x0109501204 · Cited by 61
Tendance d'âge subjectif: Quelle validité prédictive?
Guiot, D. (2001) · Recherche et Applications en Marketing (French Edition) · doi:10.1177/076737010101600103 · Cited by 61
Social Cognition and a Psychological Approach to an Art of Life
Staudinger, U. M. (1999) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012345260-3/50016-1 · Cited by 61
Secondary control critiqued: Is it secondary? Is it control? Comment on Morling and Evered (2006).
Skinner, E. A. (2007) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.133.6.911 · Cited by 60
“…of secondary control refers to active attempts to produce outcomes (within the individual); in terms of function, this conceptualization holds that secondary control “serves to minimize losses in, maintain, and expand existing levels of primary control” (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995, p. 284).”
BackgroundInfluentialBartsch, A. (2012) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2012.01657.x · Cited by 64
“Arousal regulation frameworks such as mood management (Zillmann, 1988) and sensation seeking (Zuckerman, 1979) assume that negative affect plays an important role in regulating aversive states of underarousal and boredom.”
BackgroundInfluentialGuiot, D. (2006) · Recherche et Applications en Marketing (French Edition) · doi:10.1177/076737010602100105 · Cited by 60
Compensatory Processes in the Social Networks of Older Adults
Rook, K. S., & Schuster, T. L. (1996) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-1388-3_10 · Cited by 60
Riediger, M., Li, S.-C., & Lindenberger, U. (2006) · Handbook of the Psychology of Aging · doi:10.1016/b978-012101264-9/50016-1 · Cited by 99
Induced power changes the sense of agency
Obhi, S. S., Swiderski, K. M., & Brubacher, S. P. (2012) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2012.06.008 · Cited by 59
Goulding, C., & Shankar, A. (2004) · European Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1108/03090560410529268 · Cited by 60
Lauwerier, E., Caes, L., Damme, S. V., Goubert, L., Rosseel, Y., & Crombez, G. (2015) · Journal of Pain · doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2015.01.001 · Cited by 64
The quality of rural and metropolitan life
Best, C. J., Cummins, R. A., & Lo, S. K. (2000) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00049530008255370 · Cited by 59
“Possible applications ofHeckhausen and Schultz's (1995) theory to the subject matter of this study include (1) the use of services in an attempt to gain primary control, (2) the use of secondary control mechanisms in maintaining the subjective life quality of ex farmers and (3) the secondary control functions of spir…”
BackgroundStewart, T. L., Chipperfield, J. G., Ruthig, J. C., & Heckhausen, J. (2012) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2012.743963 · Cited by 67
“One possible explanation for this phenomenon is detailed in the Motivational Theory of Life-Span Development (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995, 1998; Heckhausen et al., 2010).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationTse, D. C. K., Nakamura, J., & Csíkszentmihályi, M. (2019) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2019.1579362 · Cited by 68
“…(Baltes, 1987), (b) selection, optimization, and compensation (SOC) theory (Baltes, 1997), (c) psychological compensation theory (Bäckman & Dixon, 1992), (d) assimilation and accommodation model (Brandtstädter & Greve, 1994), and (e) lifespan theory of control (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995).”
BackgroundKolsteren, E. E. M., Deuning‐Smit, E., Chu, A. K., van der Hoeven, Y. C. W., Prins, J. B., van der Graaf, W. T. A., van Herpen, C. M. L., van Oort, I. M., Lebel, S., Thewes, B., et al. (2022) · Cancers · doi:10.3390/cancers14163889 · Cited by 58
Bailis, D. S., Chipperfield, J. G., & Perry, R. P. (2005) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/0278-6133.24.4.393 · Cited by 58
Associations of self-perceived successful aging in young-old versus old-old adults
Martin, A. S., Palmer, B. W., Rock, D., Gelston, C. V., & Jeste, D. V. (2014) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1017/s104161021400221x · Cited by 58
“Lastly, a corresponding model is the LifeSpan Theory of Control (Heckhausen and Schulz, 1995).”
MethodThe Association Between Changes in Health Status and Nursing Home Resident Quality of Life
Degenholtz, H. B., Rosen, J., Castle, N. G., Mittal, V., & Liu, D. (2008) · The Gerontologist · doi:10.1093/geront/48.5.584 · Cited by 59
“This process may be protective; as people adjust to diminished capacity and restrictive environments, they find new outlets and venues for self-identity and expression that help them maintain a positive sense of their own lives (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995).”
BackgroundUncertainty in fertility intentions in Britain, 1979-2007
Bhrolcháin, M. N. (2012) · Vienna Yearbook of Population Research · doi:10.1553/populationyearbook2011s99 · Cited by 58
“Morgan (1981, 1982) noted that uncertainty is inherent in the family formation process but existing theoretical perspectives on childbearing, whether economic (Becker 1981) or social-psychological (Ajzen 1991; Heckhausen and Schulz 1995; Miller and Pasta 1995; Miller et al. 2004) have little to say about the phenomeno…”
BackgroundWork Motivation: Theory, Practice, and Future Directions
Kanfer, R. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199928309.013.0014 · Cited by 60
Goštautaitė, B., & Bučiūnienė, I. (2015) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2015.05.001 · Cited by 65
Website interactivity may compensate for consumers’ reduced control in E-Commerce
Wu, L. (2019) · Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services · doi:10.1016/j.jretconser.2019.04.003 · Cited by 59
Age differences in adult personality: findings from the United Statesand China
Labouvie‐Vief, G., Diehl, M. K., Tarnowski, A., & Shen, J. (2000) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/55.1.p4 · Cited by 59
“…such strategies as reinterpreting situations, avoiding conflict, accepting negative events, and appealing to general norms and principles (Aldwin, 1994; Brandtstadter & Greve, 1994; Carstensen, Gross, & Fung, 1997; Diehl et al., 1996) and strategies of secondary control (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995).”
BackgroundExpect the Best and Prepare for the Worst: Anticipatory Coping and Preparations for Y2K
Aspinwall, L. G., Sechrist, G. B., & Jones, P. R. (2005) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-006-9008-y · Cited by 58
“Primary control efforts involve direct, personal actions undertaken to bring the environment in line with one’s wishes, in this case, preventing a stressor or reducing its effects (see also Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995 ).”
BackgroundMeasures of Coping for Psychological Well-Being
Greenaway, K. H., Louis, W. R., Parker, S. L., Kalokerinos, E. K., Smith, J. R., & Terry, D. J. (2014) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-386915-9.00012-7 · Cited by 57
Successful Development: Childhood Antecedents of Adaptive Psychosocial Functioning in Adulthood
Pulkkinen, L., Nygren, H., & Kokko, K. (2002) · Journal of Adult Development · doi:10.1023/a:1020234926608 · Cited by 57
Hall, N. C., Perry, R. P., Ruthig, J. C., Hladkyj, S., & Chipperfield, J. G. (2006) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.0021-9029.2006.00067.x · Cited by 57
Lay Conceptions of Volitional Personality Change: From Strategies Pursued to Stories Told
Baranski, E. N., Morse, P. J., & Dunlop, W. L. (2016) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12240 · Cited by 61
Kept in His Care: The Role of Perceived Divine Control in Positive Reappraisal Coping
DeAngelis, R. T., & Ellison, C. G. (2017) · Religions · doi:10.3390/rel8080133 · Cited by 68
Perry, R. P., Clifton, R. A., Menec, V. H., Struthers, C. W., & Menges, R. J. (2000) · Research in Higher Education · doi:10.1023/a:1007091104399 · Cited by 60
“This distinction also reflects, in part, a longstanding debate in the theoretical literature regarding the various manifestations of perceived control such as agency and domain-specificity (e.g., Bandura, 1986; Heckhausen and Schulz, 1995; Rotter, 1975; Skinner, 1996).”
BackgroundMethodFaith Factors and Internal Health Locus of Control in Patients Prior to Open-heart Surgery
Ai, A. L., Peterson, C., Rodgers, W. L., & Tice, T. N. (2005) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105305055318 · Cited by 56
“One pathway may entail the event-specific use of faith-based coping to control—vicariously or indirectly— what would otherwise seem to be uncontrollable events and situations (e.g. Cole & Pargament, 1999; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Malinowski, 1925; Pargament et al., 1999).”
BackgroundParker, P. D., Thoemmes, F. J., Duineveld, J. J., & Salmela‐Aro, K. (2015) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0038667 · Cited by 67
Windsor, T. D., & Anstey, K. J. (2008) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825580802348570 · Cited by 56
“…the establishment of behavior-event contingencies can be seen as a central component of both establishing and reinforcing control-related beliefs (e.g., Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995), and facilitating the development and refinement of knowledge structures and processing mechanisms in early life.”
Au, E. W. M., Chiu, C., Zhang, Z.-X., Mallorie, L. M., Chaturvedi, A., Viswanathan, M., & Savani, K. (2011) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022111421632 · Cited by 56
“…otherwise hinder personal achievements, or as someone who surrenders to the power of fate and adjusts himself/herself to what fate has in store for him/her (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Kluckhorn & Strodtbeck, 1961; Rotter, 1966; Rothbaum, Weisz, & Snyder, 1982; Weisz, Rothbaum, & Blackburn, 1984).”
BackgroundOn Gains and Losses, Means and Ends: Goal Orientation and Goal Focus Across Adulthood
Freund, A. M., Hennecke, M., & Mustafić, M. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195399820.013.0016 · Cited by 59
Berg, C. A., Meegan, S. P., & Klaczynski, P. A. (1999) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1080/016502599383720 · Cited by 56
Birk, T., Hickl, S., Wahl, H.-W., Miller, D., Kämmerer, A., Holz, F. G., Becker, S., & Völcker, H. E. (2004) · The Gerontologist · doi:10.1093/geront/44.6.836 · Cited by 56
“Overly dominant primary control may lead to failure and disappointment, whereas overly dominant secondary control may undermine remaining action potentials in the ''real world'' (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Wahl et al., 2004).”
BackgroundHogan, M. (2020) · International Review of Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/09540261.2020.1778647 · Cited by 60
Heckhausen, J. (2000) · Advances in psychology · doi:10.1016/s0166-4115(00)80013-8 · Cited by 55
Self-citationChipperfield, J. G., Perry, R. P., Bailis, D. S., Ruthig, J. C., & loring, P. C. (2006) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/14768320500537563 · Cited by 55
“This reasoning is consistent with the lifespan model of control (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Schulz & Heckhausen, 1996), which proposes that secondary control strategies become vital in later life when physical- and health-related restrictions cause unsolvable challenges.”
BackgroundResultHeckhausen, J., Chang, E. S., Greenberger, E., & Chen, C. (2012) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-012-9812-5 · Cited by 60
“Motivational Commitment to Age-Appropriate Developmental Goals The motivational theory of life-span development addresses individuals’ goal engagement and disengagement at various times in the life span (Heckhausen and Schulz 1995; Heckhausen et al. 2010; Schulz and Heckhausen 1996).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationAge and Social Support Seeking: Understanding the Role of Perceived Social Costs to Others
Jiang, L., Drolet, A. L., & Kim, H. S. (2018) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167218760798 · Cited by 55
“Use of confrontative coping strategies declines with age due to cognitive decline (Heckhausen, 2002; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995) and changes in life goals (Carstensen, 1992).”
BackgroundInvestigating Gamification for Seniors Aged 75+
Altmeyer, M., Lessel, P., & Krüger, A. (2018) · Designing Interactive Systems Conference · doi:10.1145/3196709.3196799 · Cited by 54
“Moreover, goals and priorities differ between younger and older people [13] which might have an impact on what motivates or affects seniors and what is considered to be fun while playing.”
BackgroundExploring Cultural Differences in the Extent to Which People Perceive and Desire Control
Hornsey, M. J., Greenaway, K. H., Harris, E. A., & Bain, P. G. (2018) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167218780692 · Cited by 61
Coping with Job Loss and Reemployment: A Two-Wave Study
Solove, E., Fisher, G. G., & Kraiger, K. (2014) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-014-9380-7 · Cited by 54
“However, prominent life-span coping theories and supporting empirical studies suggest that the use of emotionfocused coping strategies generally increase later in life (Baltes and Baltes 1990; Brandtstädter and Renner 1990; Carstensen 1993; Heckhausen and Schulz 1995; Riediger et al. 2006), which may be adaptive for o…”
BackgroundSilbereisen, R. Κ. (2004) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1080/01650250444000478 · Cited by 54
“The other model we referred to is the life span theory of control by Heckhausen and Schulz (1995).”
MethodWagner, J., Hoppmann, C. A., Ram, N., & Gerstorf, D. (2014) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0038338 · Cited by 64
“These findings are consistent with reports showing that perceived control is a key component of successful adult development and aging (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Lachman, 2006).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialPasupathi, M., Weeks, T. L., & Rice, C. (2006) · Journal of Language and Social Psychology · doi:10.1177/0261927x06289425 · Cited by 31
Tuomola, J., Soon, J. Y., Fisher, P., & Yap, P. L. K. (2016) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology · doi:10.1007/s10823-016-9287-z · Cited by 54
Chipperfield, J. G., & Perry, R. P. (2006) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/0278-6133.25.2.226 · Cited by 54
“Although we do not present results of this initial analysis, clear factors did emerge that conformed precisely to Heckhausen and Schulz’s (1998) theoretical constructs of selective and compensatory primarycontrol and compensatory secondary-control strategies (i.”
ResultFrom Successful Ageing to Ageing Well: A Narrative Review
Waddell, C., Van Doorn, G., Power, G., & Statham, D. (2024) · The Gerontologist · doi:10.1093/geront/gnae109 · Cited by 55
“Primary control is associated with outward processes (e.g., behaviors) designed to influence one’s immediate environment such that it better fits the individual’s wants and needs (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995).”
Age differences in dynamical emotion-cognition linkages
Chow, S.-M., Hamagani, F., & Nesselroade, J. R. (2007) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.22.4.765 · Cited by 53
“... adults tend to separate and tolerate the coexistence of PA and NA through differentiation, older adults do so by optimizing their PA. By a similar token, older adults have been found to adopt more secondary processes (e.g., reappraising a negative event in a positive light), rather than primary control processes (…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialFishman, E. J. (2014) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12057 · Cited by 54
van Doorn, R. R. A., & Hulsheger, U. R. (2013) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2013.858700 · Cited by 63
“It is long known that effective resource management and control differ between individuals (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Hockey, 1997; Kahneman, 1973; Kanfer & Ackerman, 1989), and these capabilities may be related to personality traits.”
BackgroundSubjective Well-Being as an Indicator for Clinical Depression
Gargiulo, R. A., & Stokes, M. A. (2008) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-008-9301-0 · Cited by 54
“when the situation cannot be changed (Heckhausen and Schulz 1995) keeping levels of self-esteem, positivism, control and emotional well-being in the positive range (Cummins 2006).”
BackgroundPreferences for collaborative and individual everyday problem solving in later adulthood
Strough, J., Cheng, S., & Swenson, L. M. (2002) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1080/01650250143000337 · Cited by 53
“Heckhausen and Schulz (1995) posit that across the life span, individuals prefer self-directed action aimed at shaping the environment, but that constraints on biological and social resources make it dif cult for older adults to employ such strategies.”
BackgroundMolina, K. M., & Simon, Y. (2013) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-013-9547-0 · Cited by 58
Gerstorf, D., Ram, N., Goebel, J., Schupp, J., Lindenberger, U., & Wagner, G. G. (2010) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0019574 · Cited by 58
“First, in consideration of age, several self-regulation theories (Brandtstädter, 1999; Brickman & Campbell, 1971; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995) have suggested that the adaptive system is highly efficient throughout adulthood and old age in helping people adapt to a variety of (changes in) life…”
Negative Interaction and Heart Disease in Late Life
KRAUSE, N. M. (2004) · Journal of Aging and Health · doi:10.1177/0898264304272782 · Cited by 54
“A number of researchers argue that as people grow older, they are more likely to use compensatory control strategies that involve reinterpreting difficulties or challenges in an effort to find benefit in them (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995).”
BackgroundTaking on the stress‐depression link: Meaning as a resource in adolescence
Dulaney, E. S., Graupmann, V., Grant, K. E., Adam, E. K., & Chen, E. (2018) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2018.02.011 · Cited by 63
Beyond Life Satisfaction: Lay Conceptions of Well-Being among Middle-Aged and Elderly Adults
Westerhof, G. J., Dittmann‐Kohli, F., & Thissen, T. (2001) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1023/a:1012455124295 · Cited by 55
Profiles of successful aging in middle-aged and older adult married couples.
Ko, K. J., Berg, C. A., Butner, J., Uchino, B. N., & Smith, T. W. (2007) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.22.4.705 · Cited by 53
Aging or disease? Cardiovascular reactivity in Finnish men over the middle years.
Jennings, J. R., Kamarck, T. W., Manuck, S. B., Everson‐Rose, S. A., Kaplan, G. A., & Salonen, J. T. (1997) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037//0882-7974.12.2.225 · Cited by 53
Self‐Regulation across the Life Span
Geldhof, G. J., Little, T. D., & Colombo, J. A. (2010) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470880166.hlsd002005 · Cited by 53
Single by Choice? Assessing and Understanding Voluntary Singlehood Among Mature Gay Men
Hostetler, A. J. (2009) · Journal of Homosexuality · doi:10.1080/00918360902821486 · Cited by 55
“Although secondary modes of control typically become ascendant in later life (Heckhausen and Schulz, 1995), this study indicates that single gay men may be making the transition from predominantly primary to predominantly secondary modes, in at least one important developmental area, relatively early in the life cours…”
BackgroundBauer, I. E., Wrosch, C., & Jobin, J. (2008) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0014180 · Cited by 52
Conceptualising School-to-Work Transitions in Context
Schoon, I., & Silbereisen, R. Κ. (2009) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511605369.001 · Cited by 51
Locus of control and coping strategies in older persons with and without depression
Bjørkløf, G. H., Engedal, K., Selbæk, G., Maia, D. B., Coutinho, E. S. F., & Helvik, A. (2015) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2015.1040722 · Cited by 58
Chipperfield, J. G., Newall, N. E. G., Perry, R. P., Stewart, T. L., Bailis, D. S., & Ruthig, J. C. (2012) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167212444758 · Cited by 51
“Our finding is not necessarily incompatible with the Life Span Theory of Control (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995) that regards the function of SC, not as a catalyst for the psychological sense of control, but as a strategic motivator for continued control striving.”
BackgroundResultRook, K. S., Charles, S. T., & Heckhausen, J. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195342819.013.0015 · Cited by 53
Self-citationHousing-related control beliefs and independence in activities of daily living in very old age
Oswald, F., Wahl, H., Schilling, O. K., & Iwarsson, S. (2007) · Scandinavian Journal of Occupational Therapy · doi:10.1080/11038120601151615 · Cited by 51
Riley, K. E., & Park, C. L. (2014) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2014.33.7.587 · Cited by 54
Faculty Beliefs about Intelligence Are Related to the Adoption of Active-Learning Practices
Aragón, O. R., Eddy, S. L., & Graham, M. J. (2018) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.17-05-0084 · Cited by 51
McQuillen, A. D., Licht, M. H., & Licht, B. G. (2003) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/0278-6133.22.5.504 · Cited by 51
Interpersonal Control Strivings and Vulnerability to Negative Social Exchanges in Later Life.
Sorkin, D. H., & Rook, K. S. (2004) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.19.4.555 · Cited by 51
Körner, A., Reitzle, M., & Silbereisen, R. Κ. (2011) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2011.05.004 · Cited by 54
“With regard to efforts in dealing with demands, we refer to the life-span theory of control (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Heckhausen, Wrosch, & Schulz, 2010).”
MethodKoole, S. L., Kühl, J., Jostmann, N. B., & Vohs, K. D. (2005) · Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) · Cited by 51
Metadata
- Authors
- Heckhausen, J., & Schulz, R.
- Affiliations
- Max Planck Institute for Human Development (DE)
- ORCID
- Heckhausen, Jutta
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1995
- Volume
- 102
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 284-304
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2130212806
- Semantic Scholar
- 155e1d5e2cf570e3b465d059e2f5941c94d12c5b
- Cited by
- 1,844
- References
- 210
- Citations by year
- 2026: 37 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 60 · 2023: 46 · 2022: 50 · 2021: 72 · 2020: 59 · 2019: 87 · 2018: 65 · 2017: 68 · 2016: 72 · 2015: 87 · 2014: 73 · 2013: 73 · 2012: 96
- FWCI
- 55.83
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5r01mh041887-03)
- National Institute on Aging (AG-05444)
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH41887)
- National Cancer Institute (CA 48635, R01CA048635)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Optimism, Hope, and Well-being
- Keywords
- lifespan development, primary control, secondary control, coping with failure, motivational resources, action goals, developmental trade-offs, life course, old age
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aging, Child, Child, Preschool, Defense Mechanisms, Female, Humans, Infant, Internal-External Control, Male, Middle Aged, Personality Development, Social Perception, Social Values
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