Cited by 1,844Aging and Gerontology ResearchBehavioral Health and InterventionsOptimism, Hope, and Well-being

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A life-span theory of control.

Heckhausen, Jutta, Schulz, Richard·1995·Psychological Review

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Abstract

A life-span theory of development is presented that is based on the concepts of primary and secondary control. Primary control refers to behaviors directed at the external environment and involves attempts to change the world to fit the needs and desires of the individual. Secondary control is targeted at internal processes and serves to minimize losses in, maintain, and expand existing levels of primary control. Secondary control helps the individual to cope with failure and fosters primary control by channeling motivational resources toward selected action goals throughout the life course. Primary control has functional primacy over secondary control. An analysis of extensive and diverse literatures spanning infancy through old age shows that trade-offs between primary and secondary control undergo systematic shifts across the life course in response to the opportunities and constraints encountered.

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Background
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Background
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“…others: the dual-process model of assimilative and accommodative coping [e.g., Brandtstädter, 2006; Brandtstädter & Renner, 1990], the model of selection, optimization, and compensation (SOC) [e.g., P. Baltes & Baltes, 1990], and the life-span theory of control [e.g., Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995].”
BackgroundInfluential
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“Furthermore, Heckhausen and Schulz (1999) question the evidence that Asians really emphasise secondary control.”
Influential
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“It investigates a set of psychological processes that is of particular interest in the first of these two contexts—control and goal striving (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Brandtstädter, 1990; Brandtstädter & Rothermund, this volume), control beliefs (Bandura, 1977, 1992), and selective optimization…”
Background
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“These results are similar to those of the Hong et al. (1993) study, although they found higher reactance in their younger group than in their older group.”
Result
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BackgroundInfluential
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BackgroundInfluential
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Method
Level and change in perceived control predict 19-year mortality: Findings from the Americans’ changing lives study.
Infurna, F. J., Ram, N., & Gerstorf, D. (2012) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0031041 · Cited by 103
“Third, control beliefs may allow people to mobilize social support, particularly in times of strain, thereby serving as a buffer against the effects of stress (see Antonucci, 2001; Cohen & Wills, 1985; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Lang, Featherman, & Nesselroade, 1997).”
Background
Entwicklungspsychologie der Lebensspanne
Staudinger, U. M., & Baltes, P. B. (2000) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-59625-4_1 · Cited by 97
Lifespan Psychology: From Developmental Contextualism to Developmental Biocultural Co-constructivism
Baltes, P. B., & Smith, J. (2004) · Research in Human Development · doi:10.1207/s15427617rhd0103_1 · Cited by 117
Coping With Uncertainty: Superstitious Strategies and Secondary Control1
Case, T. I., Fitness, J., Cairns, D. R., & Stevenson, R. J. (2004) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2004.tb02574.x · Cited by 103
Attitude toward own aging in midlife and early old age over a 12-year period: Examination of measurement equivalence and developmental trajectories.
Miche, M., Elsässer, V., Schilling, O. K., & Wahl, H. (2014) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0037259 · Cited by 96
Quality of life in adolescence: the role of perceived control, parenting style, and social support
Petito, F., & Cummins, R. A. (2000) · Behaviour Change · doi:10.1375/bech.17.3.196 · Cited by 146
“While the loss of such primary control may be expected to result in negative consequences for wellbeing(Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995), it is proposed that such loss can be compensated by secondary control strategies.”
Background
Gaps in social support resources in later life: An adaptational challenge in need of further research
Rook, K. S. (2009) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/0265407509105525 · Cited by 95
“A modification of goals and aspirations may be stimulated, in part, by a lack of success in efforts to attain a goal (Brandstadter & Renner, 1990; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995).”
Antecedent-Consequent Relations of Perceived Control to Health and Social Support: Longitudinal Evidence for Between-Domain Associations Across Adulthood
Gerstorf, D., Röcke, C., & Lachman, M. E. (2010) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbq077 · Cited by 101
Psalms and Coping with Uncertainty: Religious Israeli Women's Responses to the 2006 Lebanon War
Sosis, R., & Handwerker, W. P. (2011) · American Anthropologist · doi:10.1111/j.1548-1433.2010.01305.x · Cited by 95
Are older workers more active copers? Longitudinal effects of age‐contingent coping on strain at work
Hertel, G., Rauschenbach, C., Thielgen, M. M., & Krumm, S. (2015) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.1995 · Cited by 108
Psychological Consequences of Longevity
Freund, A. M., Nikitin, J., & Ritter, J. O. (2009) · Human Development · doi:10.1159/000189213 · Cited by 103
“This research suggests that self-regulation is important across the life span [see also Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995].”
Method
Subjective Aging and Awareness of Aging: Toward a New Understanding of the Aging Self
Diehl, M. K., Wahl, H., Brothers, A. F., & Miche, M. (2014) · Annual Review of Gerontology and Geriatrics · doi:10.1891/0198-8794.35.1 · Cited by 107
“…subjective experiences and agentic motivations of the developing person (Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger, 2006; Brandtstädter & Rothermund, 2002; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995), with few exceptions (see Rothermund & Brandstädter, 2003; Teuscher, 2009), no systematic attempts were made to link the…”
Background
Sociodemographic, health-related, and social predictors of subjective well-being among Chinese oldest-old: A national community-based cohort study
Cheng, G., & Yan, Y. (2021) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-021-02071-7 · Cited by 92
Physical health problems, depressive mood, and cortisol secretion in old age: Buffer effects of health engagement control strategies.
Wrosch, C., Schulz, R., Miller, G. E., LUPIEN, S. J., & Dunne, E. (2007) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/0278-6133.26.3.341 · Cited by 99
“These control behaviors are characteristic of a person who invests time and energy (selective primary control), seeks other people’s help and advice (compensatory primary control), and increases the motivation (selective secondary control) to actively overcome physical health problems (for a more detailed discussion o…”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Self‐Regulation: Reminders and Suggestions from Personality Science
Cervone, D., Shadel, W. G., Smith, R. E., & Fiori, M. (2006) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2006.00261.x · Cited by 97
Beyond Function: Predicting Participation in a Rehabilitation Cohort
Jette, A. M., Keysor, J. J., Coster, W. J., Ni, P., & Haley, S. M. (2005) · Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2005.08.001 · Cited by 91
The role of problem definitions in understanding age and context effects on strategies for solving everyday problems.
Berg, C. A., Strough, J., Calderone, K. S., Sansone, C., & Weir, C. R. (1998) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.13.1.29 · Cited by 92
Psychosocial Consequences of Age-Related Visual Impairment: Comparison With Mobility-Impaired Older Adults and Long-Term Outcome
Wahl, H.-W., Schilling, O. K., Oswald, F., & Heyl, V. (1999) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/54b.5.p304 · Cited by 92
Health Stresses and Depressive Symptomatology in the Elderly
Wrosch, C., Schulz, R., & Heckhausen, J. (2004) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.01301005.x · Cited by 91
“The life-span theory of control ( Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Schulz & Heckhausen, 1996) provides a conceptual framework for examining psychological and behavioral mechanisms that may help older adults to manage their experience of health threats.”
BackgroundSelf-citation
More or less "me" in past, present, and future: Perceived lifetime personality during adulthood.
Fleeson, W., & Heckhausen, J. (1997) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037//0882-7974.12.1.125 · Cited by 91
Self-citation
The social costs of underemployment: inadequate employment as disguised unemployment
(2004) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.41-5977 · Cited by 91
Job satisfaction in aging workforces: an analysis of the USA, Japan and Germany
Drabe, D., Hauff, S., & Richter, N. (2014) · The International Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.1080/09585192.2014.939101 · Cited by 99
Social support as a predictor of variability: An examination of the adjustment trajectories of recent widows.
Bisconti, T. L., Bergeman, C. S., & Boker, S. M. (2006) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.21.3.590 · Cited by 90

Authors: Heckhausen, J., & Schulz, R.
Affiliations: Max Planck Institute for Human Development (DE)
ORCID: Heckhausen, Jutta
Venue: Psychological Review
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1995
Volume: 102
Issue: 2
Pages: 284-304
ISSN: 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
1939-1471
DOI: 10.1037/0033-295x.102.2.284
OpenAlex: W2130212806
Semantic Scholar: 155e1d5e2cf570e3b465d059e2f5941c94d12c5b
Cited by: 1,844
References: 210
Citations by year: 2026: 37 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 60 · 2023: 46 · 2022: 50 · 2021: 72 · 2020: 59 · 2019: 87 · 2018: 65 · 2017: 68 · 2016: 72 · 2015: 87 · 2014: 73 · 2013: 73 · 2012: 96
FWCI: 55.83
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (5r01mh041887-03)
National Institute on Aging (AG-05444)
National Institute of Mental Health (MH41887)
National Cancer Institute (CA 48635, R01CA048635)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Optimism, Hope, and Well-being
Keywords: lifespan development, primary control, secondary control, coping with failure, motivational resources, action goals, developmental trade-offs, life course, old age
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aging, Child, Child, Preschool, Defense Mechanisms, Female, Humans, Infant, Internal-External Control, Male, Middle Aged, Personality Development, Social Perception, Social Values

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A life-span theory of control.

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