Cited by 1,844Aging and Gerontology ResearchBehavioral Health and InterventionsOptimism, Hope, and Well-being

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A life-span theory of control.

Heckhausen, Jutta, Schulz, Richard·1995·Psychological Review

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Abstract

A life-span theory of development is presented that is based on the concepts of primary and secondary control. Primary control refers to behaviors directed at the external environment and involves attempts to change the world to fit the needs and desires of the individual. Secondary control is targeted at internal processes and serves to minimize losses in, maintain, and expand existing levels of primary control. Secondary control helps the individual to cope with failure and fosters primary control by channeling motivational resources toward selected action goals throughout the life course. Primary control has functional primacy over secondary control. An analysis of extensive and diverse literatures spanning infancy through old age shows that trade-offs between primary and secondary control undergo systematic shifts across the life course in response to the opportunities and constraints encountered.

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Kooij, T. A. M. (2010) · Digital Academic REpository of VU University Amsterdam (Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam) · Cited by 23
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Barron Millar, E., Singhal, D., Vijayaraghavan, P., Seshadri, S., Smith, E., Dixon, P., Humble, S., Rodgers, J., & Sharma, A. N. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0250336 · Cited by 21
“Data regarding locus of control (internal vs external) as predictor of anxiety in the structured path model were in keeping with previous literature [20, 21] which suggests that internal locus of control may increase until middle age and decrease thereafter.”
BackgroundResult
Die Bedeutung von Situations- und Handlungsmodellen für das Leben im Alter
Amrhein, L. (2004) · VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-322-80902-5_3 · Cited by 22
Financial inadequacy and the disadvantageous changes in time perspective and goal‐striving strategies throughout life
Wang, Y., & Ford, M. T. (2020) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2475 · Cited by 24
“…life-span development, individuals may employ two types of control strategies to adapt to environments: primary control strategies and secondary control strategies (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Heckhausen, Wrosch, & Schulz, 2010; Rothbaum, Weisz, & Snyder, 1982; Wrosch, Heckhausen, & Lachman, 2000).”
Background
Cultural Differences in Self‐Rated Health: The Role of Influence and Adjustment
Choi, J. H., & Miyamoto, Y. (2022) · Japanese Psychological Research · doi:10.1111/jpr.12405 · Cited by 25
Goal adjustment capacities in uncontrollable life circumstances: Benefits for psychological well-being during COVID-19
Hamm, J. M., Tan, J. X. Y., Barlow, M. A., Delaney, R., & Duggan, K. A. (2022) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-022-09941-6 · Cited by 29
Factors Buffering Against the Effects of Job Demands
Besen, E. T., Matz-Costa, C. J., James, J. B., & Pitt‐Catsouphes, M. (2012) · Journal of Applied Gerontology · doi:10.1177/0733464812460430 · Cited by 24
“Based on Heckhausen and Schulz’s (1995) life-span theory of control, which suggests that the types of control strategies employed by individuals change over the life-span, we propose that job and personal control interact in important ways to either buffer or exacerbate the negative relationship”
BackgroundInfluential
Chronic negative circumstances and compulsive buying: consumer vulnerability after a natural disaster
Sneath, J. Z., Lacey, R., & Kennett-Hensel, P. A. (2014) · Journal of Global Scholars of Marketing Science · doi:10.1080/21639159.2014.881112 · Cited by 20
“In response to difficult situations, individuals use a variety of coping methods to manage emotional states and minimize vulnerability, e.g., interpreting the situation differently or fantasizing (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995).”
Background
O lugar do afeto, o afeto pelo lugar: o que dizem os idosos?
Macedo, D. C. F., Oliveira, C. V., Günther, I. D. A., Alves, S. M., & Nóbrega, T. S. (2008) · Psicologia Teoria e Pesquisa · doi:10.1590/s0102-37722008000400007 · Cited by 22
Community Involvement, Perceived Control, and Attitudes toward Aging among Lesbians and Gay Men
Hostetler, A. J. (2012) · The International Journal of Aging and Human Development · doi:10.2190/ag.75.2.c · Cited by 22
“And individuals generally adapt better to environmental contexts that promote a sense of autonomy and environmental mastery (Langer & Rodin, 1996; Phillipe & Vallerand, 2008), experiential dimensions that seem to take on particular salience with age (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995).”
Background
Coping Strategies as Mediating Variables Between Self-serving Attributional Bias and Subjective Well-Being
Sanjuán, P., & Magallares, A. (2013) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-013-9430-2 · Cited by 22
Understanding work enjoyment among older workers: The significance of flexible work options and age discrimination in the workplace
Choi, E., Ospina, J. H., Steger, M. F., & Orsi, R. (2018) · Journal of Gerontological Social Work · doi:10.1080/01634372.2018.1515140 · Cited by 28
“Heckhausen and Schulz (1995) argued that young adults are more likely to focus heavily on externally oriented outcomes but that age shifts the focus to more intrinsic rewards.”
Background
Mind, Body and Wellbeing: Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory and Self-cultivation Systems as Wellbeing Influencers
Sovereign, G., & Walker, B. R. (2020) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-019-00216-5 · Cited by 23
The Dynamics of Subjective Career Success: A Qualitative Inquiry
Hupkens, L., Akkermans, J., Solinger, O. N., & Khapova, S. N. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13147638 · Cited by 30
The timing and context of consumer decisions
Lee, E., Mathur, A., Fatt, C. K., & Moschis, G. P. (2012) · Marketing Letters · doi:10.1007/s11002-012-9182-5 · Cited by 22
“Third, health (HLTH), which was addressed in terms of functional abilities and absence of chronic disease, also pertains to the respondent’s human capital (Heckhausen and Schulz 1995) and has been suggested by life course researchers (Rapkin and Fischer 1992).”
Background
The Effect of Simplicity and Perceived Control on Perceived Ease of Use.
Lee, D., Moon, J., & Kim, Y.-J. (2007) · Journal of the Association for Information Systems · Cited by 22
Influence of Culture and Age on Control Beliefs: The Missing Link of Interdependence
Ashman, O., Shiomura, K., & Levy, B. R. (2005) · The International Journal of Aging and Human Development · doi:10.2190/9lxu-wlyp-nc22-98mj · Cited by 22
“Thus, primary control is characterized by actions directed at attempting to change the world to fit one’s needs and desires, while secondary control involves processes directed at making the individual adjust to or “fit in with the world” (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1993, 1995; Schulz & Heckhausen, 1997).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Environmental Concern, Self-concept and Defence Style: A study of the Agenda 21 process in a Swedish municipality
Lindström, M., & Johnsson, P. (2003) · Environmental Education Research · doi:10.1080/13504620303470 · Cited by 22
“People with a high degree of control are empowered people who remain confident that their future outcomes will be contingent on their behaviour (Campbell & Martinko, 1998; Geller et al., 1982; Geller, 1995; Heckhausen & Schultz, 1995; Thomas & Velthouse, 1990).”
Background
The effect of sleep disturbance on the association between chronic medical conditions and depressive symptoms over time
Leggett, A. N., Assari, S., Burgard, S. A., & Zivin, K. (2017) · Longitudinal and Life Course Studies · doi:10.14301/llcs.v8i2.433 · Cited by 22
“…face of stress – such as appraising stressors more positively than younger adults and using distancing strategies (Berg & Upchurch, 2007; Brandtstädter & Greve, 1994; Diehl, Coyle, & Labouvie-Vief, 1996; Felton & Revenson, 1987; Folkman, Lazarus, Pimley, & Novacek, 1987; Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995).”
Background
Engagement and Disengagement Across the Life Span: An Analysis of Two-Process Models of Developmental Regulation.
Haase, C. M., Poulin, M. J., & Heckhausen, J. (2005) · Cited by 22
Self-citation
Expanding the conceptual range of health self-regulation research: A commentary
Karoly, P. (1998) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870449808407427 · Cited by 22
Emotional and self-evaluative effects of social comparison information in later life: How are they moderated by collective self-esteem?
Bailis, D. S., & Chipperfield, J. G. (2006) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.21.2.291 · Cited by 22
Tackling Vision-Related Disability in Old Age: An Application of the Life-Span Theory of Control to Narrative Data
Boerner, K., Brennan‐Ing, M., Horowitz, A., & Reinhardt, J. P. (2009) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbp098 · Cited by 21
Hedonism or self-growth? The influence of perceived control on individual product preferences for individuals under self-threat
Zhao, T., Song, W., Jin, X., Cui, H., & Li, Y. (2019) · Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics · doi:10.1108/apjml-02-2019-0072 · Cited by 21
Staying in “the works of living”: How older adults employ marketplace resources to age successfully
LaBarge, M., & Pyle, M. A. (2020) · Journal of Consumer Affairs · doi:10.1111/joca.12302 · Cited by 21
Personality Traits, Coping, Health-related Behaviors, and Cumulative Physiological Health in a National Sample: 10 Year Prospective Effects of Conscientiousness via Perceptions of Activity on Allostatic Load
Milad, E., & Bogg, T. (2020) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1093/abm/kaaa024 · Cited by 22
“secondary) control strategies may have greater putative adaptive value by allowing an individual to create a context in which needs can be met and, over time, facilitate developmental potential [23].”
Background
Personal need for structure shapes the perceived impact of reduced personal control
Noordewier, M. K., & Rutjens, B. T. (2020) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.110478 · Cited by 22
Reciprocal associations between social media use and self-perception of aging among older adults: Do men and women differ?
Wang, K., & Gu, D. (2023) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.115786 · Cited by 21
Psycho-Social Correlates of Cyberbullying among Polish Adolescents
Rębisz, S., Jasińska-Maciążek, A., Grygiel, P., & Dolata, R. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20085521 · Cited by 26
“Some studies have shown that people develop more internal locus of control with age, but it seems more appropriate to treat internal and external loci of control as orthogonal dimensions with different developmental trajectories [38].”
Background
Long‐term developments in individual work behaviour: Patterns of stability and change
Schalk, R., HEIJDEN, B. I. J. M. V. D., de Lange, A. H., & van Veldhoven, M. J. P. M. (2011) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8325.2011.02031.x · Cited by 22
“Heckhausen, Wrosch, and Schulz (2010), in their eminent recent article in ‘Psychological Review’, identified four key issues that should be addressed by lifespan theories of development (see also Heckhausen & Schulz 1995; Schulz & Heckhausen 1996).”
Background

Authors: Heckhausen, J., & Schulz, R.
Affiliations: Max Planck Institute for Human Development (DE)
ORCID: Heckhausen, Jutta
Venue: Psychological Review
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1995
Volume: 102
Issue: 2
Pages: 284-304
ISSN: 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
1939-1471
DOI: 10.1037/0033-295x.102.2.284
OpenAlex: W2130212806
Semantic Scholar: 155e1d5e2cf570e3b465d059e2f5941c94d12c5b
Cited by: 1,844
References: 210
Citations by year: 2026: 37 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 60 · 2023: 46 · 2022: 50 · 2021: 72 · 2020: 59 · 2019: 87 · 2018: 65 · 2017: 68 · 2016: 72 · 2015: 87 · 2014: 73 · 2013: 73 · 2012: 96
FWCI: 55.83
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (5r01mh041887-03)
National Institute on Aging (AG-05444)
National Institute of Mental Health (MH41887)
National Cancer Institute (CA 48635, R01CA048635)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Optimism, Hope, and Well-being
Keywords: lifespan development, primary control, secondary control, coping with failure, motivational resources, action goals, developmental trade-offs, life course, old age
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aging, Child, Child, Preschool, Defense Mechanisms, Female, Humans, Infant, Internal-External Control, Male, Middle Aged, Personality Development, Social Perception, Social Values

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A life-span theory of control.

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