Cited by 2,379Social and Intergroup PsychologyDeath Anxiety and Social ExclusionPsychology of Social Influence

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Motivated closing of the mind: “Seizing” and “freezing”

Kruglanski, Arie W., Webster, Donna M.·1996·Psychological Review

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Abstract

A theoretical framework is outlined in which the key construct is the need for (nonspecific) cognitive closure. The need for closure is a desire for definite knowledge on some issue. It represents a dimension of stable individual differences as well as a situationally evocable state. The need for closure has widely ramifying consequences for social-cognitive phenomena at the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and group levels of analysis. Those consequences derive from 2 general tendencies, those of urgency and performance. The urgency tendency represents an individual's inclination to attain closure as soon as possible, and the permanence tendency represents an individual's inclination to maintain it for as long as possible. Empirical evidence for present theory attests to diverse need for closure effects on fundamental social psychological phenomena, including impression formation, stereotyping, attribution, persuasion, group decision making, and language use in intergroup contexts.

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Self-citation
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Hong, Y., Benet‐Martínez, V., Chiu, C., & Morris, M. W. (2003) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022103034004005 · Cited by 205
“The epistemic state of desiring cognitive closure (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996) makes individuals more likely than otherwise to rely on chronically accessible constructs.”
Neuroticism and locus of control as moderators of the relationships of charismatic and autocratic leadership with burnout.
Hoogh, A. H. B. D., & Hartog, D. N. D. (2009) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0016253 · Cited by 204
“Future research on traits such as the need for cognitive closure (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996) or self-regulatory focus (Higgins, 1997) may also prove worth- while as these traits may also influence how followers react to leader behavior.”
Background
Comprehension of Multiple Documents With Conflicting Information: A Two-Step Model of Validation
Richter, T., & Abendroth, J. (2017) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2017.1322968 · Cited by 204
Epistemic motives and cultural conformity: Need for closure, culture, and context as determinants of conflict judgments.
Fu, J. H., Morris, M. W., Lee, S.-L., Chao, M. M., Chiu, C., & Hong, Y. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.2.191 · Cited by 203
“…than that emphasized in early research on NFC. Early descriptions of NFC emphasized self-oriented attention to one’s own information processing— desire for judgments consistent with one’s prior beliefs or desire for judgments that enable a quick end to deliberation (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996).”
Background
Emotional influence at work: Take it EASI
Kleef, G. A. V., Homan, A. C., & Cheshin, A. (2012) · Organizational Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/2041386612454911 · Cited by 214
“…for cognitive closure, lower personal need for structure, and higher openness to experience have chronically higher epistemic motivation than those who score on the opposite poles of these continua, and as a result they engage in more deliberate information processing (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996).”
The emergence of coherence over the course of decision making.
Simon, D., Pham, L. B., Le, Q. A., & Holyoak, K. J. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.27.5.1250 · Cited by 199
Cross-Cultural Competence in Army Leaders: A Conceptual and Empirical Foundation
Abbe, A., Gulick, L. M. V., & Herman, J. L. (2007) · doi:10.21236/ada475798 · Cited by 194
“It refers to the motivation to find immediate answers and solutions and to resist any new information that conflicts with those answers (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996).”
Background
Motivating creativity: The effects of sequential and simultaneous learning and performance achievement goals on product novelty and usefulness
Miron‐Spektor, E., & Beenen, G. (2015) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2015.01.001 · Cited by 201
The Role of Prejudice and the Need for Closure in Religious Fundamentalism
Brandt, M. J., & Reyna, C. (2010) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167210366306 · Cited by 197
“…any firm answer as opposed to confusion and/or ambiguity” and represents a cluster of psychological expressions including closed mindedness, uncertainty avoidance, the need for coherence, and intolerance of ambiguity (Kruglanski, 2004, p. 6; see also Kruglanski, 1989; Kruglanski & Webster, 1996).”
Background
Social identity change: Shifts in social identity during adolescence
Tanti, C. J., Stukas, A. A., Halloran, M. J., & Foddy, M. (2010) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2010.05.012 · Cited by 195
A Cultural Models Approach to Service Recovery
Ringberg, T., Odekerken‐Schröder, G., & Christensen, G. L. (2007) · Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1509/jmkg.71.3.194 · Cited by 199
“…and deeply held, well-learned, self-pertinent convictions and tropes to situations that interfere with self-relevant goal pursuits (i.e., high self-relevance) (Bandura 1989; Carver and Scheier 1990; Macrae and Bodenhausen 2001, p. 248) and to stressful situations (Kruglanski and Webster 1996).”
On the perpetuation of ignorance: System dependence, system justification, and the motivated avoidance of sociopolitical information.
Shepherd, S., & Kay, A. C. (2011) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0026272 · Cited by 205
“A considerable amount of research, however, suggests that people often engage in more psychologically defensive, and less workintensive, processes when confronted with uncertainty (Hogg, 2007; Kruglanski & Webster, 1996; McGregor, Nash, Mann, & Phills, 2010).”
Background
Sympathetic Magical Thinking: The Contagion and Similarity “Heuristics”
Rozin, P. N., & Nemeroff, C. J. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.013 · Cited by 195
Whatever happened to "What might have been"? Regrets, happiness, and maturity.
King, L. A., & Hicks, J. A. (2007) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.62.7.625 · Cited by 206
“Reducing uncertainty, maximizing controllability and predictability—these have been recognized as central human motives (Festinger, 1957; Heider, 1958; Heine, Proulx, & Vohs, 2006; Kelley, 1971; Kruglanski & Webster, 1996).”
Background
Antecedent consumer factors, consequential branding outcomes and measures of online consumer engagement: current research and future directions
Schee, B. A. V., Peltier, J. W., & Dahl, A. J. (2020) · Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing · doi:10.1108/jrim-01-2020-0010 · Cited by 201
The Relationship Between Need for Closure and Conservative Beliefs in Western and Eastern Europe
Kossowska, M., & Hiel, A. V. (2003) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/0162-895x.00338 · Cited by 191
“The term “need” is used to denote a motivated tendency or proclivity, and implies that closure may not be desired in all situations ( Kruglanski & Webster, 1996 ).”
BackgroundInfluential
Data Gathering: Biased in Psychosis?
Dael, F. V., Versmissen, D., Janssen, I., Myin‐Germeys, I., van Os, J., & A, L. K. M. (2005) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbj021 · Cited by 191
NEED FOR CLOSURE AND JUMPING-TO-CONCLUSIONS IN DELUSION-PRONE INDIVIDUALS
Colbert, S., & PETERS, E. R. (2002) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/00005053-200201000-00007 · Cited by 191
“In describing the effects of need for closure, Kruglanski and Webster (1996) state that individuals high in need for closure “may ‘leap’ to judgment on the basis of inconclusive evidence” (Kruglanski and Webster, 1996, p. 264).”
Background
On the Seizing and Freezing of Negotiator Inferences: Need for Cognitive Closure Moderates the Use of Heuristics in Negotiation
Dreu, C. K. W. D., Koole, S. L., & Oldersma, F. L. (1999) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167299025003007 · Cited by 189
“At the other end of the continuum, individuals with low need for closure may prefer to suspend judgment, engaging in extensive information search and generating multiple interpretations for known facts (Kruglanski & Ajzen, 1983; Kruglanski & Webster, 1996; Mayseless & Kruglanski, 1987).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Group Decision Making: The Effects of Initial Preferences and Time Pressure
Kelly, J. R., & Karau, S. J. (1999) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167299259002 · Cited by 189
A Signal Detection Approach to Understanding the Identification of Fake News
Batailler, C., Brannon, S. M., Teas, P. E., & Gawronski, B. (2021) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691620986135 · Cited by 209
“Given the idea that people employ cognitive processes in the service of their goals (Ditto & Lopez, 1992; Kruglanski & Webster, 1996; Kunda, 1990), motivated-reflection accounts suggest that people strategically use their cognitive skills to process information in a manner such that the inferential…”
Background
Emotion is for influence
Kleef, G. A. V., van Doorn, E. A., Heerdink, M. W., & Koning, L. F. (2011) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463283.2011.627192 · Cited by 205
“As a consequence they tend to engage in rather deliberate, systematic information search and processing before making judgements and decisions (De Dreu & Carnevale, 2003; Kruglanski, 1989; Kruglanski & Webster, 1996; see also Chaiken & Trope, 1999).”
Background
Values and preferences: defining preference construction
Warren, C., McGraw, A. P., & Leaf Van Boven, A. (2010) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Cognitive Science · doi:10.1002/wcs.98 · Cited by 196
The Contingent, Contextual Nature of the Relationship Between Needs for Security and Certainty and Political Preferences: Evidence and Implications
Federico, C. M., & Malka, A. (2018) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12477 · Cited by 204
“…in the need for closure dislike uncertainty, and this leads them to reach conclusions quickly and then hold onto those conclusions even in the face of challenging information (Kruglanski, 2004; Kruglanski & Webster, 1996; Kruglanski, Pierro, Mannetti, & DeGrada, 2006; Webster & Kruglanski, 1994).”
Background
It’s all about audit quality: Perspectives on strategic-systems auditing
Peecher, M. E., Schwartz, R. L., & Solomon, I. (2006) · Accounting Organizations and Society · doi:10.1016/j.aos.2006.09.001 · Cited by 187
Emotional transfer in goal systems
Ayelet Fishbach, B., Shah, J. Y., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2004.04.001 · Cited by 185
“For instance, it could raise the specter of choosing the wrong activity, inducing a fear of invalidity (Kruglanski & Freund, 1983; Kruglanski & Webster, 1996 ), hence a worry that might interfere with ones enjoyment.”
BackgroundSelf-citation

Authors: Kruglanski, A. W., & Webster, D. M.
Affiliations: University of Maryland, College Park (US)
ORCID: Kruglanski, Arie W.
Venue: Psychological Review
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1996-04
Volume: 103
Issue: 2
Pages: 263-283
ISSN: 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
1939-1471
DOI: 10.1037/0033-295x.103.2.263
OpenAlex: W1994106556
Cited by: 2,379
References: 87
Citations by year: 2026: 105 · 2025: 104 · 2024: 75 · 2023: 78 · 2022: 110 · 2021: 130 · 2020: 150 · 2019: 96 · 2018: 135 · 2017: 107 · 2016: 98 · 2015: 92 · 2014: 107 · 2013: 88 · 2012: 108
FWCI: 80.97
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (5r01mh052578-05, 5k05mh001213-03)
National Institute of Mental Health (1R01 MH 52578, KO5/MH01213)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychology of Social Influence
Keywords: need for closure, cognitive closure, impression formation, stereotyping, attribution, persuasion, group decision making, individual differences, social cognition
MeSH terms: Cognition, Decision Making, Humans, Intelligence, Language, Personality

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Motivated closing of the mind: “Seizing” and “freezing”

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