Addicted to answers: need for cognitive closure and the endorsement of conspiracy beliefs
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Abstract Conspiracy theories offer simple answers to complex problems by providing explanations for uncertain situations. Thus, they should be attractive to individuals who are intolerant of uncertainty and seek cognitive closure. We hypothesized that need for cognitive closure (NFCC) should foster conspiracy beliefs about events that lack clear official explanations, especially when conspiracy theories are temporarily salient. In Experiment 1, NFCC positively predicted the endorsement of a conspiracy theory behind the refugee crisis, especially when conspiratorial explanations were made salient. Experiment 2 showed that when conspiratorial explanations were made salient, NFCC positively predicted beliefs in conspiracies behind a mysterious plane crash. However, the link between NFCC and beliefs in conspiratorial explanations was reversed in the case of a plane crash with an official, non‐conspiratorial, explanation for the accident. In conclusion, people high (vs. low) in NFCC seize on conspiratorial explanations for uncertain events when such explanations are situationally accessible.
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Conspiracy beliefs are higher when people want to make sense of their environment.
“(2) make sense of their environment [33][34][35]”
From The dark side of social movements: social identity, non-conformity, and the lure of conspiracy theories (2020) · cites this paper as [34]
Conspiracy theories might only be epistemically relevant when a situation is uncertain and conspiracy theory explanations are particularly salient.
“research suggests that conspiracy theories might only be epistemically relevant when a situation is uncertain and conspiracy theory explanations are particularly salient [34; see also 52].”
From The dark side of social movements: social identity, non-conformity, and the lure of conspiracy theories (2020) · cites this paper as [34]
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“For example, with respect to epistemic needs, it has been shown that individuals who have a high need for closure seize on conspiratorial explanations for uncertain events when such explanations are readily available [26].”
BackgroundDisparate roads to certainty processing strategy choices under need for closure
Kossowska, M., Szumowska, E., Dragon, P., Jaśko, K., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2018) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463283.2018.1493066 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Psychometric assessments of Persian translations of three measures of conspiracist beliefs
Atari, M., Afhami, R., & Swami, V. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0215202 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Even where data from non-English speaking samples is obtained, it remains heavily reliant on European samples (e.g., [9] ) and/or does not adequately consider psychometric issues (e.g., [24] ).”
BackgroundA call to action for librarians: Countering conspiracy theories in the age of QAnon
Beene, S., & Greer, K. (2021) · The Journal of Academic Librarianship · doi:10.1016/j.acalib.2020.102292 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Comparative Media Regulation in the United States and Europe
Fukuyama, F., & Grotto, A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108890960.010 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Knowledge through social networks: Accuracy, error, and polarisation
Hahn, U., Merdes, C. J., & von Sydow, M. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0294815 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Szebeni, Z., Lönnqvist, J.-E., & Jasinskaja-Lahti, I. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.790848 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Online Political Advertising in the United States
Fowler, E. F., Franz, M. M., & Ridout, T. N. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108890960.007 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Mancosu, M., & Vassallo, S. (2022) · Italian Political Science Review/Rivista Italiana di Scienza Politica · doi:10.1017/ipo.2021.57 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“The idea that a small core of powerful and malevolent actors conspire in the shadows to the detriment of the people is well-established and recurrent in pre-enlightenment religiously motivated narratives (Naphy, 2002).”
BackgroundErişen, C. (2022) · International Political Science Review · doi:10.1177/01925121221084625 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“When explanations appear unsatisfactory, certain cognitive processes engender a proclivity to seek answers to doubts and conundrums (Marchlewska et al., 2018).”
BackgroundConclusion: The Challenges and Opportunities for Social Media Research
Persily, N., & Tucker, J. A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108890960.014 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Georgiou, N., Delfabbro, P., & Balzan, R. P. (2021) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546805.2021.1924650 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“The NFCC has strong psychometric properties and has been shown to have good predictive validity in studies relating to conspiracy beliefs (Marchlewska et al., 2018).”
BackgroundInfluentialGórska, P., Marchlewska, M., Szczepańska, D., Molenda, Z., Michalski, P., & Furman, A. (2022) · Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2022.2111250 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Insight in the Conspiracist’s Mind
de Cruys, S. V., Bervoets, J., Gadsby, S., Gijbels, D., & Poels, K. (2023) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/10888683231203145 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“We would predict that, while people with conspiracy beliefs may often have a higher intolerance of uncertainty by default (Larsen et al., 2021; Marchlewska et al., 2018, but see, Molding et al., 2016), engagement with conspiracy materials, especially if they appeal to their epistemic agency as…”
BackgroundDisinformation and Conspiracy Theories in the Age of COVID-19
Pereira, P. S., Silveira, A. D. S., & Pereira, A. (2020) · Frontiers in Sociology · doi:10.3389/fsoc.2020.560681 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“The appeal of conspiracy theories is that they often serve as a “radicalizing multiplier” (Bartlett and Miller, 2010) for fringe groups while offering an easy explanation for complex issues (Marchlewska et al., 2018), thus satisfying people’s need for cognitive closure (Kruglanski and Fishman, 2009).”
BackgroundJolley, D., Seger, C. R., & Meleady, R. (2023) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2973 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
On the relationship between age and conspiracy beliefs
Bordeleau, J.-N., & Stockemer, D. (2024) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.13044 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“In terms of psychological characteristics, research highlights that individuals who have a higher need for cognitive closure are more likely to use conspiratorial explanations (Leman & Cinnirella, 2013; Marchlewska et al., 2018; Umam et al., 2018).”
Walker, B., & Vegter, A. (2023) · Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion · doi:10.1111/jssr.12836 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Probability and conspiratorial thinking
Kovic, M., & Füchslin, T. (2018) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3408 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Nera, K., Pantazi, M., & Klein, O. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00684 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Other lines of research have focused on personality-related variables associated with the endorsement of CTs (e.g., Goertzel, 1994; Darwin et al., 2011; Douglas and Sutton, 2011; Newheiser et al., 2011; Marchlewska et al., 2017), as well as on generic cognitive biases associated with conspiracy mentality and CT endors…”
BackgroundInfluentialJones, C., Galbraith, N., Boyda, D., Martin, D., & Jackson, K. (2023) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2023.112155 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“CT can provide an explanatory framework for otherwise inexplicable or complex events and thus, people high in need for cognitive closure may be more likely to endorse CT (Marchlewska et al., 2018).”
BackgroundSternisko, A., Cichocka, A. K., & Bavel, J. J. V. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/wvqes · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Gathering, processing, and interpreting information about COVID-19
Boot, A. B., Eerland, A., Jongerling, J., Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L., & Zwaan, R. A. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-86088-3 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Conspiracy Beliefs Are Related to the Use of Smartphones behind the Wheel
Valero‐Mora, P., Zacarés, J. J., Sánchez‐García, M., Lancero, M. T. T., & Faus, M. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18157725 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“” Often associated with conspiracy theories is a lack of confidence in science or scientific results that has been linked to deficiencies in analytical thinking ability [4], statistical thinking biases [5], or the need for “cognitive closure” [6].”
BackgroundHetzel, N., Klawier, T., Prochazka, F., & Schweiger, W. (2022) · Studies in Communication and Media · doi:10.5771/2192-4007-2022-4-508 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Michalski, P., Marchlewska, M., Górska, P., Rogoza, M., Molenda, Z., & Szczepańska, D. (2023) · Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2023.2237176 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“…(Cichocka, Marchlewska, & Golec de Zavala, 2016), non-clinical delusional thinking (Dagnall et al., 2015), low cognitive ability and open-minded thinking (Rizeq et al., 2021; see; Douglas et al., 2019 for review), or high need for cognitive closure Marchlewska, Cichocka, and Kossowska (2018).”
Marie, A., & Petersen, M. B. (2024) · Political Communication · doi:10.1080/10584609.2024.2363542 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“…and to be open to others’ perspectives, may make it easier to inhibit cognitive biases (such as negative intent ascriptions, monocausal explanations, dualism or Manicheism, etc.), which are signature features of hostile and conspiratorial political discourses (e.g., Marchlewska et al., 2018).”
Panchal, R., & Jack, A. H. (2020) · BJPsych Bulletin · doi:10.1192/bjb.2020.120 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Онлайн-дейтинг: рынок или базар? Процесс поиска брачной пары на православном сайте знакомств
Galitsina, K., Kalinovskaya, P., & Khvorostianova, O. (2022) · Journal of Economic Sociology · doi:10.17323/1726-3247-2022-2-65-90 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Tam, L., & Kim, S. (2023) · Public Relations Review · doi:10.1016/j.pubrev.2023.102354 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Albarracín, D. (2020) · The Psychology of Fake News · doi:10.4324/9780429295379-14 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“In research conducted by Marchlewska, Cichocka, and Kossowska (2017), Polish participants underwent procedures similar to those used by Leman and Cinnirella’s (2013).”
COVID-19: Belief in Conspiracy Theories and the Need for Quarantine
Егорова, М., Parshikova, O. V., Chertkova, Y. D., Staroverov, V. M., & Mitina, O. V. (2020) · Psychology in Russia State of Art · doi:10.11621/pir.2020.0401 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Klofstad, C., Christley, O. R., Diekman, A. B., Kübler, S., Enders, A. M., Funchion, J., Littrell, S., Murthi, M. N., Premaratne, K., Seelig, M. I., et al. (2024) · Politics Groups and Identities · doi:10.1080/21565503.2024.2342834 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“…(Bonikowski and Zhang 2023; Uscinski 2021); these cues are transmitted through various media increasing the salience of that conspiracy theory (Marchlewska 2018; Prooijen 2020), particularly for people who were already believers, or who were already disposed to believe the conspiracy theory…”
- Authors
- Marchlewska, M., Cichocka, A., & Kossowska, M.
- Affiliations
- University of Warsaw (PL)
- University of Kent (GB)
- Jagiellonian University (PL)
- Corresponding author
- Marchlewska, Marta
- Venue
- European Journal of Social Psychology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2017-11-11
- Volume
- 48
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 109-117
- ISSN
- 0046-2772 (ISSN-L)
- 1099-0992
- OpenAlex
- W2619090928
- Cited by
- 311
- References
- 33
- Citations by year
- 2026: 22 · 2025: 33 · 2024: 49 · 2023: 38 · 2022: 59 · 2021: 45 · 2020: 41 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 11 · 2017: 3
- FWCI
- 45.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Locations
- European Journal of Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Kent Academic Repository (University of Kent) (acceptedVersion)
- Homo Politicus (Academy of Humanities and Economics in Lodz) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Funders
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (2011/02/A/HS6/00155)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Misinformation and Its Impacts
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Paranormal Experiences and Beliefs
- Keywords
- need for cognitive closure, conspiracy beliefs, conspiracy theories, intolerance of uncertainty, salience, refugee crisis, plane crash
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