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The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition
Abstract
Advancing adult age is associated with reduced processing speed, which constrains cognitive performance.
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“even healthy older adults experience age-related declines across multiple facets of cognition (Park & Shaw, 1992; Park et al., 1996; Salthouse, 1996; Salthouse & Babcock, 1991)”
From Training Older Adults to Use Tablet Computers: Does It Enhance Cognitive Function? (2016) · cites this paper as Salthouse, 1996
In the citing paper
“age-related changes in speed of information processing will constrain performance in timelimited decisions”
From Enrichment Effects on Adult Cognitive Development: Can the Functional Capacity of Older Adults Be Preserved and Enhanced? (2008) · cites this paper as Salthouse, 1996
In the citing paper
“Differential susceptibility to coordinative demands may also help to explain why life-span age differences in marker tests of fluid intelligence such as Raven's matrices tend to persist when participants are given unlimited amounts of time to solve the items”
From Enrichment Effects on Adult Cognitive Development: Can the Functional Capacity of Older Adults Be Preserved and Enhanced? (2008) · cites this paper as Salthouse, 1996
In the citing paper
“It follows a U-shaped trajectory over the lifespan, with differences in processing speed between younger and older adults being among the most widely replicated effects in the domain of cognitive aging (Salthouse 1996).”
From Hearing Impairment and Cognitive Energy: The Framework for Understanding Effortful Listening (FUEL) (2016) · cites this paper as Salthouse 1996
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“As age increases, especially in the elders, there is a general decline in WM efficiency, primarily manifested as weakened attention control and decreased information processing speed (Salthouse, 1996).”
Coors, A., Boenniger, M. M., Santos, M. L. S., Lohner, V., Koch, A., Ettinger, U., Aziz, N. A., & Breteler, M. M. B. (2025) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000210278 · Cited by 6
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“, [31, 32]) cannot explain the present results because older participants did not approach the maximum allotted time to”
ResultKurtz, T., & Zimprich, D. (2013) · European Journal of Ageing · doi:10.1007/s10433-013-0293-5 · Cited by 6
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“…Einstein, Edwards, Hagood, & Rendell, 2006; West & Bowry, 2005)。研究者对准确执行前瞻记忆任务的能力是 否 存 在 年 龄 相 关 下 降 这 一 问 题 进 行 了 调 查 , 在 Henry, MacLeod, Phillips 和 Crawford (2004)的元分 析中总结到, 老年人在实验室的前瞻记忆任务中确 实比青年人表现得更差, 特别是任务具有较高水平 的控制策略需求时 , 年龄差异更加显著 (see also McDaniel, Einstein, & Rendell, 2008)。 事件性前瞻记忆中,…”
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Zortéa, M., de Jou, G. I., & de Salles, J. F. (2014) · Psico-USF · doi:10.1590/1413-82712014019002012 · Cited by 5
Sex differences in inspection time with age
Gregory, T. A., Nettelbeck, T. J., Burns, N. R., Danthiir, V., Wilson, C. J., & Wittert, G. (2010) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.11.034 · Cited by 6
Ageism towards young and elderly people: lessons from the Nordic diversity model
Barel, Y., Frémeaux, S., & Quental, C. (2013) · Revue de gestion des ressources humaines · doi:10.3917/grhu.090.0003 · Cited by 5
Gras, D., Tardieu, H., Piolino, P., & Nicolas, S. (2011) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2010.537278 · Cited by 5
“Salthouse (1996) proposed the processing-speed theory to explain age differences in cognition.”
BackgroundInfluence of Articulation Rate on Two Memory Tasks in Young and Older Adults
Dasí, C., Soler, M. J., Cervera, T., & Ruíz, J. C. (2008) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.106.2.579-589 · Cited by 5
Efeitos do treino com jogos de videogame na cognição de idosos: revisão sistemática
Assis, S. A. C. D. N., Bós, Â. J. G., Myskiw, J. D. C., Pinho, M. S., Filho, I. G. D. S., Schwanke, C. H. A., & Izquierdo, I. (2015) · Scientia Medica · doi:10.15448/1980-6108.2015.3.21636 · Cited by 6
“Consequentemente, o somatório dos eventos causados pelo declínio cognitivo conduz à redução no número das relações sociais, à depressão e por fim, ao isolamento [3,4].”
McGillivray, S., Friedman, M. C., & Castel, A. D. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199734689.013.0033 · Cited by 6
The Composite Effect Is Face-Specific in Young but Not Older Adults
Meinhardt, G., Persike, M., & Meinhardt‐Injac, B. (2016) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2016.00187 · Cited by 6
“Further, brief presentation times are a means to increase task difficulty remarkably for older adults (Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundNeural activity reveals effects of aging on inhibitory processes during word retrieval
Mohan, R., & Weber, C. (2018) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2018.1519105 · Cited by 5
“For example, the general slowing theory postulates that agerelated cognitive declines are due to slowing of the component processes (Madden, 2001; Salthouse, 1996), implying that word retrieval difficulties may be a result of slower excitation or integration of activation across the cognitive network.”
BackgroundDifferentiation-Dedifferentiation as a Guiding Principle for the Analysis of Lifespan Development
Zimprich, D., & Martin, M. G. (2010) · Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) · doi:10.5167/uzh-40639 · Cited by 5
Does Age Impact Text-Message Dependence?
Ferraro, F. R. (2018) · The Journal of General Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221309.2018.1459453 · Cited by 5
“Various cognitive abilities also normally decline with age, especially speed of processing (Salthouse, 1996), and this expected decline may also hinder older adults’ adoption and usage of technology.”
BackgroundApproximation processes in arithmetic in old adulthood
Ganor-Stern, D. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0200136 · Cited by 5
Delayed reactive distractor suppression in aging populations.
Ashinoff, B. K., Geng, J. J., & Mevorach, C. (2019) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/pag0000336 · Cited by 5
Tams, S., & Dulipovici, A. M. (2019) · Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS) · doi:10.24251/hicss.2019.785 · Cited by 6
“In a word, proximal cognitive predictors, especially self-efficacy, often mediate the impact of more distal non-cognitive ones like age on behavior [46,50].”
BackgroundBrown, W. M., & Ušacka, A. (2019) · Symmetry · doi:10.3390/sym11111364 · Cited by 5
“In addition, the quality of information-processing reduces with age [3,83].”
BackgroundEscobar, S. M. R., Barreto, D. M. R., & Cardona, E. A. S. (2020) · Future Internet · doi:10.3390/fi12020038 · Cited by 5
“Both the FE and the speed of processing decrease with age [25] Daily activities are strongly related to these functions [26].”
BackgroundSchlaghecken, F., & Maylor, E. A. (2020) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0000755 · Cited by 5
“Perhaps surprisingly, the control of sensorimotor interference appears to remain mostly intact across the life span: Once older adults’ generally slower processing (see Cerella, 1985; Salthouse, 1996) has been taken into account, most interference effects tend be of similar magnitude in young and older adults.”
BackgroundEmotion Recognition and Aging of the Social Brain
Ruffman, T. K., & Sutcliffe, R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108552684.023 · Cited by 5
Influence of age and education on a performance-based measure of everyday functioning
Hergert, D. C., Pulsipher, D. T., Haaland, K. Y., & Sadek, J. R. (2020) · Applied Neuropsychology Adult · doi:10.1080/23279095.2020.1803323 · Cited by 5
“The association between advancing age and slower performance is consistent with many other studies demonstrating that older age is associated with decreased processing speed (Bezdicek et al., 2016; Finkel et al., 2007; Salthouse, 1996).”
ResultThe Impact of Age, Gender, and Marital Status on Age-Associated Cognitive Decline
MacKinnon-Lee, K.-A., & Bahr, M. (2020) · Psychology · doi:10.4236/psych.2020.118082 · Cited by 5
“Under the generalised model, the brain as a whole is subject to decline; the accumulation of amyloid plaque, attacking neurological structures unsystematically, has been suggested to primarily influence widespread cognitive decline (Hardy, 2002; Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundArslan, S., Palasis, K., & Meunier, F. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-75550-3 · Cited by 5
Kojouharova, P., Gaál, Z. A., Nagy, B., & Czigler, I. (2020) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2020.596047 · Cited by 5
“According to this analysis older participants were slower even beside the effect of general agerelated slowing (e.g., Salthouse, 1996).”
MethodResultSetién‐Suero, E., de la Foz, V. O., Suárez‐Pinilla, P., Crespo‐Facorro, B., & Ayesa‐Arriola, R. (2021) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2021.110309 · Cited by 5
Sinclair, C., Eramudugolla, R., Brady, B., Cherbuin, N., & Anstey, K. J. (2021) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2021.1909709 · Cited by 5
Ren, Y., Li, H., Li, Y., Wang, T., & Yang, W. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.740221 · Cited by 5
“There were significant sensory declines in older adults, showing slowed auditory and visual information processing in the first stage (Salthouse, 1996; Hirst et al., 2019); therefore, the delayed AVI with aging might be mainly attributed to age-related sensory decline.”
BackgroundDaley, R. T., & Kensinger, E. A. (2021) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2021.2019183 · Cited by 5
“First, processing speed accounts demonstrate that older adults are known to be slower when processing task-relevant content, potentially accounting for cognitive declines across many domains (Salthouse, 1996).”
Backgroundde’Sperati, C., Granato, M., & Moretti, M. (2022) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2021.783090 · Cited by 5
“Perceptual processing in elders might turn out to be affected not only by sensory and cognitive deterioration (Salthouse, 1996; Owsley, 2011; Andersen, 2012), but also by motor deterioration.”
BackgroundIs there an emotionality effect in older adults’ source memory?
Symeonidou, N., Hassan, A., Porstein, I., & Kuhlmann, B. G. (2022) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2022.2078778 · Cited by 5
“To characterize our online sample more comprehensively, we additionally measured performance on a pattern comparison task (Salthouse, 1996) and a vocabulary task (Riegel, 1967, see below for more details) in both age groups.”
MethodExploration électrophysiologique de la mémoire épisodique dans le vieillissement normal
Angel, L., Fay, S., & Isingrini, M. L. (2010) · L’Année psychologique · doi:10.3917/anpsy.104.0595 · Cited by 5
(Zu-)Hören mit alterndem Gehirn – eine kognitive Herausforderung
Großmann, W. (2023) · Laryngo-Rhino-Otologie · doi:10.1055/a-1973-3038 · Cited by 5
“For example, the decrease in processing speed is discussed as one such common factor [218].”
BackgroundHorne, K., Ceslis, A., Mosley, P. E., Adam, R. J., & Robinson, G. A. (2023) · Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology · doi:10.1097/wnn.0000000000000345 · Cited by 5
“These processes decline in both individuals with NDD and the healthy aging (Grady, 2012; Salthouse, 1996; Zacks et al, 2000); therefore, significant correlations between apathy and energization are unlikely to be capturing disease progression or the degree of cognitive decline.”
Effects of mixed metal exposures on MRI diffusion features in the medial temporal lobe
Lee, E., Kim, J., Prado‐Rico, J. M., Du, G., Lewis, M. M., Kong, L., Yanosky, J. D., Eslinger, P. J., Kim, B.-G., Hong, Y., et al. (2023) · NeuroToxicology · doi:10.1016/j.neuro.2024.10.005 · Cited by 6
“Speedy information processing may be crucial for various cognitive functions requiring attention, encoding and retrieval of to-be-remembered information, reasoning, decision making, and visuospatial perceptions (Salthouse, 1996).”
Cognição e hipertensão: influência da escolaridade
Banhato, E. F. C., & Guedes, D. V. (2011) · Estudos de Psicologia (Campinas) · doi:10.1590/s0103-166x2011000200002 · Cited by 5
“Tal fato é consoante com a teoria de Salthouse (1996), que propõe que a base do declínio cognitivo encontra-se em apenas um mecanismo fundamental: a maior lentidão do processamento com a idade.”
BackgroundPeiffer, A. M., Maldjian, J. A., & Laurienti, P. J. (2007) · International Journal of Biomedical Imaging · doi:10.1155/2008/167078 · Cited by 5
“Finally, current work in how aging affects processing speed questions the degree to which general cognitive slowing can be summarized with one linear function across all types of tasks [5, 9, 10].”
BackgroundAging alters visual processing of objects and shapes in inferotemporal cortex in monkeys
Csete, G., Bognár, A., Csibri, P., Kaposvári, P., & Sáry, G. (2014) · Brain Research Bulletin · doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2014.11.005 · Cited by 4
“Some authors argue for a generalized slowing in processing speed during aging (Salthouse, 1996) and many papers describe age-related increases in response latencies.”
BackgroundAn FMRI-Compatible Symbol Search Task
Liebel, S. W., Clark, U. S., Xu, X., Riskin-Jones, H. H., Hawkshead, B. E., Schwarz, N. F., Labbe, D. R., Jerskey, B. A., & Sweet, L. H. (2015) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617715000144 · Cited by 5
“CPS is also of particular interest to aging research because it is a fundamental component of many of the brain’s other functions (Rypma & Prabhakaran, 2009; Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundAnálisis de un programa informático para estimular la atención en personas mayores
Sánchez, N. M., Cueli, M., García, T., et al. (2011) · Consultation of the Doctoral Thesis Database (TESEO) (Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte) · Cited by 5
Baradel, R. R., da Silva, H. S., Estequi, J. G., et al. (2014) · Dementia & Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1590/s1980-57642014dn83000004 · Cited by 5
“Socioeconomic status was evaluated by the CCEB questionnaire (Critério de Classificação Econômica do Brasil) developed by the Associação Brasileira de Empresas de Pesquisa (ABEP)17 that classifies individuals into seven classes A1 (42-46), A2 (35-41), B1 (29-34), B2 (23-28), C (18-22), D (14-17) and E (0-7).”
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Wühr, P., & Schwarz, S. (2016) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3238 · Cited by 5
Assessment of Cognitive Training
Rebok, G. W., Parisi, J. M., Gross, A. L., & Spira, A. P. (2010) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-374961-1.10008-9 · Cited by 5
Acquired Brain Injury and Visual Information Processing Deficits
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Developmental Psychology in the 1920s: A Period of Major Transition
Thompson, D. N. (2016) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221325.2016.1243407 · Cited by 5
“The issue has more recently been referred to as “speed of processing theory” and continues to be a topic receiving research attention (for his initial presentation of the theory, see Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundAuditory speed tasks as potential candidates for the study of cognitive ageing
Zajac, I. T., & Nettelbeck, T. (2016) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2016.1272671 · Cited by 4
“Furthermore, in cross-sectional analyses, the correlations between age and other more complex cognitive abilities are significantly reduced after adjusting for processing speed (Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundPoletti, C., Sleimen-Malkoun, R., Decker, L. M., Rétornaz, F., Lemaire, P., & Temprado, J.-J. (2017) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2016.00334 · Cited by 6
Influence of Assessment Methods on Subjective and Objective Memory Impairment
Burmester, B. R., LEATHEM, J. M., & Merrick, P. L. (2017) · GeroPsych · doi:10.1024/1662-9647/a000167 · Cited by 5
VanVleet, T., Voss, M. W., Dabit, S., Mitko, A., & Degutis, J. M. (2018) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-018-0233-4 · Cited by 6
Aging and the Combined effects of ADRA2B and CB1 deletions on Affective Working Memory
Fairfield, B., Mammarella, N., Fontanella, L., Sarra, A., D’Aurora, M., Stuppia, L., & Gatta, V. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-40108-5 · Cited by 5
Aging and Orienting of Visual Attention: Emergence of a Rightward Attentional Bias with Aging?
Guilbert, A., Clément, S., & Moroni, C. (2019) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565641.2019.1605517 · Cited by 5
“According to the processing-speed theory (Salthouse, 1996), the most important decrease with aging concerns the processing speed, which is the pace at which we perceive the information, make sense of it and begin to respond.”
MethodAbidin, Z., Tayo, Y., & Mayasari, M. (2018) · International Journal of Engineering & Technology · doi:10.14419/ijet.v7i3.30.18159 · Cited by 5
Predictors of Motor Vehicle Collisions
HOLE, G. J. (2008) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-045048-3.00002-6 · Cited by 5
Resolving conflicting social categories: The role of age‐related executive ability
Hutter, R. R. C., Wood, C., & Dodd, G. F. (2011) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.2011.02037.x · Cited by 5
“Slower processing speed is often indicative of reduced executive ability and has been shown to be associated with aging (e.g., Salthouse, 1996; Verhaeghen & Basak, 2005; Verhaeghen & Salthouse, 1997).”
BackgroundChapter 5 Lifespan studies of mental chronometry: Insights derived from chronopsychophysiology
Bashore, T. R., Ridderinkhof, K. R., & van der Molen, M. W. (1998) · Advances in psychology · doi:10.1016/s0166-4115(98)80007-1 · Cited by 5
Oraciones producidas por adultos mayores y adultos jóvenes en una situación controlada
Véliz, M., Riffo, B., Hernández, M., Sáez, Y., & Sáez, K. L. (2013) · ONOMAZEIN · doi:10.7764/onomazein.27.16 · Cited by 4
Isotone additive latent variable models
Sardy, S., & Victoria‐Feser, M. (2011) · Statistics and Computing · doi:10.1007/s11222-011-9262-z · Cited by 5
“2003) aimed at the study of selective attention (Dempster and Brainerd 1995) and processing speed (Salthouse 1996).”
BackgroundVisuomotor Control in Continuous Response Time Tasks across Different Age Groups
Liu, G., Chen, D. D., Qin, C., Chan, J. S. Y., Peng, K., & Yan, J. H. (2014) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/25.10.pms.119c13z8 · Cited by 5
“The diff erence in visuomotor control between age groups may be related to the diff erences in the threshold of action initiation ( Salthouse, 1996 ; Smith, et al ., 1999 ; Garvey, Ziemann, Bartko, Denckla, Barker, Wassermann, 2003 ; Falkenstein, Yordanova, & Kolev, 2006 ).”
BackgroundOhlsson, S. (2007) · Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science · doi:10.1007/s12124-007-9008-9 · Cited by 5
“As examples, consider the insight sequence (Ohlsson 1992), the power law learning curve (Ohlsson and Jewett 1997), multiple overlapping waves (Siegler 1996, p. 89) and the rise and decline in cognitive speed with age ( Salthouse 1996 ).”
BackgroundIdentity and Location Priming Effects and their Temporal Stability in Young and Older Adults
Troche, S. J., Gibbons, H., & Rammsayer, T. H. (2008) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825580701336874 · Cited by 5
Within-person changes in inspection time predict memory
Gregory, T. A., Nettelbeck, T., & Wilson, C. J. (2009) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.01.027 · Cited by 5
Miyamoto, A., Hasegawa, J., & Hoshino, O. (2012) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-012-0524-2 · Cited by 5
Agbayani, K. A., & Hiscock, M. (2013) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2013.806650 · Cited by 5
“Because several subtests of the Wechsler tests have a speed component or external time constraint, age-related declines in performance on such subtests may reflect diminished processing speed rather than (or more than) loss of cognitive ability (Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundEffects of hearing loss on traffic safety and mobility
Thorslund, B. (2014) · Studies from the Swedish Institute for Disability Research · doi:10.3384/diss.diva-111933 · Cited by 5
“Slower cognitive processing is also associated with aging (Cerella, 1990; Salthouse, 1996) and it is estimated that processing takes 1.”
BackgroundInfluentialPerceptual Similarity Can Drive Age-Related Elevation of False Recognition
Boutet, I., Dawod, K., Chiasson, F., Brown, O., & Collin, C. A. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00743 · Cited by 6
“Either way, our findings underscore the importance of including measures of reaction time in studies on false recognition, especially in light of processing speed theories of aging (e.g., see Salthouse, 1996 for general cognitive impairments and Rousselet et al., 2010 for upright faces).”
Coffman, T. P. (2014) · Cited by 5
The Aging of Cognitive Control: Studies of Conflict Processing, Goal Neglect, and Error Monitoring
West, R., & Bowry, R. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511720413.006 · Cited by 5
Foley, J. A. (2007) · ERA · Cited by 5
Becic, E., Manser, M., Creaser, J., et al. (2012) · University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy (University of Minnesota) · Cited by 5
Communicating with older cancer patients: impact on information recall
Jansen, J. (2004) · Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) · Cited by 5
Sosa, G. W. (2012) · Scholarship - Claremont (Claremont Colleges) · doi:10.5642/cguetd/19 · Cited by 6
“11 observed with age is among the most widely-observed behavioral phenomena of aging, with a plethora of work indicating a linear decline in cognitive processing speed across age (Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundHow to optimize cognitive load for learning from animated models
Wouters, P. (2007) · DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) · Cited by 5
Methodological Issues in Research on Adult Development and Aging
Hofer, S. M., Rast, P., & Piccinin, A. M. (2012) · doi:10.1002/9781118392966.ch4 · Cited by 6
Verhaeghen, P., Palfai, T., Cerella, J., Buchler, N., Johnson, M. P., D’Eredita, M. A., Green, D. R., Hoyer, W. J., & Makekau, M. (2000) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1076/anec.7.4.260.794 · Cited by 5
“This view of aging of episodic memory as a general phenomenon has been argued mainly from correlational data (for an overview, see Salthouse, 1996; for a meta-analysis of correlational data pertaining to age, episodic memory, and possible mediators, see Verhaeghen & Salthouse, 1997) and…”
BackgroundMethodCOGNITIVE FUNCTIONING DURING THE TRANSITION FROM NORMAL AGING TO DEMENTIA
Laukka, E. J. (2006) · Figshare · Cited by 5
Discourse Processing and Aging: Resource Allocation As a Limiting Factor
Stine‐Morrow, E. A. L., & Miller, L. M. S. (2006) · Kluwer Academic Publishers eBooks · doi:10.1007/0-306-46902-2_3 · Cited by 5
“A perusal of recent issues of Psychology and Aging, Journals of Gerontology, and Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, and other major journals (Bashore, Ridderinkhof & van der Molen, 1997; Bryan & Luszcz, 1996; Jagacinski, Liao, & Fayyad, 1995; Myerson, Hale, Wagstaff, Poon, & Smith, 1990; Salthouse, 1996; Sommers,…”
BackgroundChoi, H.-S., & Feng, J. (2015) · The Encyclopedia of Adulthood and Aging · doi:10.1002/9781118521373.wbeaa198 · Cited by 5
Benthem, K. V. (2015) · Carleton University's Institutional Repository (MacOdrum Library, Carleton University) · doi:10.22215/etd/2015-10834 · Cited by 5
“It has frequently been speculated that cognitive processing speed may be the primary mediator of age effects on complex behaviours (Kennedy, Q. et al., 2013; Salthouse, 1996; Taylor et al., 2000).”
BackgroundInformation Processing/Cognition
Bucur, B., & Madden, D. J. (2007) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b0-12-370870-2/00099-8 · Cited by 5
Effects of reading tasks on chinese EFL students' reading comprehension
Zhou, L. (2008) · Cited by 5
Becker, M., & Cabeza, R. E. L. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/vcfwe · Cited by 5
Kraft, J. N., & Woods, A. J. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-22009-9_722 · Cited by 5
Macdonald, G. W. (2013) · Scholarship at UWindsor (University of Windsor) · Cited by 5
Cross-national harmonization of neurocognitive assessment across five sites in a global study.
Batistuzzo, M. C., Sheshachala, K., Alschuler, D. M., Hezel, D. M., Lewis-Fernández, R., de Joode, N. T., Vriend, C., Lempert, K. M., Narayan, M., Marincowitz, C., et al. (2023) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000838 · Cited by 4
Adult age differences in the integration of values for self and other
Pollerhoff, L., Saulin, A., Kurtz, M., Stietz, J., Peng, X.-R., Hein, G., Tusche, A., Kanske, P., Li, S., & Reiter, A. M. F. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-96656-6 · Cited by 8
Examining Visual Processing Reaction Time of Vision Coach TM as a Predictor for Driving Fitness
Irick, M. D., Dickerson, A. E., Wu, Q., et al. (2025) · American Journal of Occupational Therapy · doi:10.5014/ajot.2025.050951 · Cited by 4
Zhao, C., & Vogel, E. K. (2024) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2025.104665 · Cited by 4
Mahfoudh, H. B., & Zoudji, B. (2025) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2025.2521334 · Cited by 4
“Despite investing equal mental effort, high-VSA learners required fewer repetitions to memorize the scenes, confirming that VSA impacts visual information ’ s processing and encoding speed (Hegarty & Kriz, 2008; Salthouse, 1996).”
Seasoned Musicians Playing Beyond the 5th Decade
Brodsky, W. (2025) · doi:10.1093/9780198956501.001.0001 · Cited by 4
Zhang, H. Y., Zhang, Z., Xiao, H., Qu, R., & Zhou, Z. (2025) · Asian Nursing Research · doi:10.1016/j.anr.2025.06.002 · Cited by 11
Lundgren, E., Lindenberger, U., Lövdén, M., Andersson, M., Axelsson, J., Bäckman, L., Johansson, J. J., Papenberg, G., Riklund, K., Salami, A., et al. (2025) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhaf293 · Cited by 7
“Our findings are partly compatible with Salthouse’s processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognitive aging, which argues that widespr ead age-related cognitive decline follows from reduced processing speed of basic cognitive operations (Salthouse 1996).”
Processing Speed Impairment in Schizophrenia
Pratt, D. N., Linares, N. N., Spencer, C., Olson, G. M., Maeve, H., Parmacek, S. N., Lee, L. E., Alliende, L. M., Zarubin, V. C., Dickinson, D., et al. (2025) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2025.3893 · Cited by 5
Sun, L., & Wang, Y. (2026) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2026.2616279 · Cited by 5
Chmiel, J., & Kurpas, D. (2026) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm15031306 · Cited by 4
Ovalle-Fresa, R., & Martarelli, C. (2024) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-023-01503-6 · Cited by 6
“Studies showing that the associative deficit might depend to a certain degree on working memory (Hara & Naveh-Benjamin, 2015) and that processing speed decreases with age (Salthouse, 1995, 1996) strengthen such an assumption.”
Metadata
- Authors
- Salthouse, T. A.
- Affiliations
- Georgia Institute of Technology (US)
- Corresponding author
- Salthouse, Timothy A.
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1996
- Volume
- 103
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 403-428
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2039752037
- Semantic Scholar
- 8ed819fe682efc79801d73e6343885be23d36fb8
- Cited by
- 5,902
- References
- 113
- Citations by year
- 2026: 269 · 2025: 251 · 2024: 232 · 2023: 214 · 2022: 217 · 2021: 273 · 2020: 240 · 2019: 296 · 2018: 280 · 2017: 273 · 2016: 284 · 2015: 309 · 2014: 267 · 2013: 266 · 2012: 283
- FWCI
- 81.40
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (R37AG006826)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- processing speed, age differences in cognition, fluid intelligence, cognitive aging
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Attention, Cognition, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Reaction Time
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