On the fragility of skilled performance: What governs choking under pressure?
Abstract
Experiments 1-2 examined generic knowledge and episodic memories of putting in novice and expert golfers. Impoverished episodic recollection of specific putts among experts indicated that skilled putting is encoded in a procedural form that supports performance without the need for step-by-step attentional control. According to explicit monitoring theories of choking, such proceduralization makes putting vulnerable to decrements under pressure. Experiments 3-4 examined choking and the ability of training conditions to ameliorate it in putting and a nonproceduralized alphabet arithmetic skill analogous to mental arithmetic. Choking occurred in putting but not alphabet arithmetic. In putting, choking was unchanged by dual-task training but eliminated by self-consciousness training. These findings support explicit monitoring theories of choking and the popular but infrequently tested belief that attending to proceduralized skills hurts performance.
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Increased failure-focused attention could in turn lead to choking under pressure.
“which could in turn lead to choking under pressure (Beilock & Carr, 2001).”
From Why grades engender performance-avoidance goals: The mediating role of autonomous motivation. (2011) · cites this paper as Beilock & Carr, 2001
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“In examining the attentional mediators of choking, Beilock and Carr (2001) used the term explicit monitoring to refer collectively to self-focus theories of choking, arguing that they ultimately refer to the allocation of attention to skill execution. Experimental evidence for explicit monitoring includes the fi nding…”
InfluentialAcute stress and episodic memory retrieval: neurobiological mechanisms and behavioral consequences
Gagnon, S. A., & Wagner, A. D. (2016) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.12996 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Beilock, S. L., Jellison, W. A., Rydell, R. J., McConnell, A. R., & Carr, T. H. (2006) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167206288489 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Self-citationCamina, E., & Güell, F. (2017) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2017.00438 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
“Essentially, there are two parallel processing paths that depart from the striatum, each of which acts in opposition to each other in the control of movement and enables associations with other relevant functional structures (Beilock and Carr, 2001).”
BackgroundATTENTIONAL FOCUS AND MOTOR LEARNING: A REVIEW OF 10 YEARS OF RESEARCH
Wulf, G. (2007) · Cited by 221 · see citing works
Hill, D. M., Hanton, S., Matthews, N., & Fleming, S. (2010) · International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/17509840903301199 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
“Nevertheless, as most well-learned sporting skills tend to be proceduralised and processed automatically outside working memory (Beilock & Carr, 2001; Gray, 2004), it is recognised that their execution is likely to remain robust to distraction, but susceptible to self-focus (Lewis & Linder, 1997;…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialWhy grades engender performance-avoidance goals: The mediating role of autonomous motivation.
Pulfrey, C., Buchs, C., & Butera, F. (2011) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0023911 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
“…which Covington (2000, p. 185) referred to as a “failure-oriented (competitive) ability game,” has every chance of seriously increasing failure-focused attention (Covington, 2000) even for high-achieving students, which could in turn lead to choking under pressure (Beilock & Carr, 2001).”
BackgroundThe Home Field Advantage in Athletics: A Meta‐Analysis
Jamieson, J. P. (2010) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00641.x · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Expertise-based differences in search and option-generation strategies.
Raab, M., & Johnson, J. G. (2007) · Journal of experimental psychology. Applied · doi:10.1037/1076-898x.13.3.158 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
“It will also be informative to determine additional factors that interact with expertise in determining the tendency to adhere to the TTF heuristic, such as working memory ( Beilock & Carr, 2001 ) or perceptual expertise (Williams & Ward, 2003).”
BackgroundBeilock, S. L., Wierenga, S. A., & Carr, T. H. (2002) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/02724980244000170 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
“Beilock and Carr (2001) found support for this notion.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationNieuwenhuys, A., & Oudejans, R. R. D. (2011) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-011-0396-x · Cited by 211 · see citing works
“Recently, Oudejans (2008) and Oudejans and Pijpers (2009, 2010) showed that training with anxiety may lead to improved performance under stressful circumstances (cf. Beilock and Carr 2001; Driskell et al. 2001).”
BackgroundA spatial explicit strategy reduces error but interferes with sensorimotor adaptation
Benson, B. L., Anguera, J. A., & Seidler, R. D. (2011) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00002.2011 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
Papies, E. K., Pronk, T. M., Keesman, M., & Barsalou, L. W. (2015) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0038032 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
Batting, Habit and Memory: The Embodied Mind and the Nature of Skill
Sutton, J. D. (2007) · Sport in Society · doi:10.1080/17430430701442462 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
Choking vs. Clutch Performance: A Study of Sport Performance under Pressure
Otten, M. P. (2009) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.31.5.583 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
“One other successful training method in the literature (e.g., Wan & Huon, 2005; Beilock & Carr, 2001) has been to videotape participants during practice before subjecting them to a pressure task.”
How attentional focus on body sway affects postural control during quiet standing
Vuillerme, N., & Nafati, G. (2005) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-005-0018-2 · Cited by 191 · see citing works
Challenge/Skill Balance, Flow, and Performance Anxiety
Fullagar, C. J. A., Knight, P. A., & Sovern, H. S. (2012) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2012.00494.x · Cited by 189 · see citing works
Increased Jump Height with an External Focus Due to Enhanced Lower Extremity Joint Kinetics
Wulf, G., & Dufek, J. S. (2009) · Journal of Motor Behavior · doi:10.1080/00222890903228421 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
“In general, directing attention to the movement effect seems to speed the learning process ( Wulf, 2007b ) so that automaticity is achieved sooner than it would be with a more traditional approach to learning, which assumes that novices need to direct their attention to the step-by-step coordination of their movements…”
Canning, E. A., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2015) · Motivation Science · doi:10.1037/mot0000015 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
“When incentives for performing well are high, individuals can " choke under pressure " and perform more poorly than when the importance of performing well is not as salient (Beilock & Carr, 2001; Beilock, Kulp, Holt, & Carr, 2004).”
BackgroundParallel basal ganglia circuits for voluntary and automatic behaviour to reach rewards
Kim, H. F., & Hikosaka, O. (2015) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awv134 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
“Attending to one’s own skilled performance often impairs that performance (Baumeister, 1984; Beilock and Carr, 2001).”
BackgroundThe Relative Effectiveness of Various Instructional Approaches in Developing Anticipation Skill.
Smeeton, N. J., Williams, A. M., Hodges, N. J., & Ward, P. (2005) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/1076-898x.11.2.98 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
Reality-based practice under pressure improves handgun shooting performance of police officers
Oudejans, R. R. D. (2008) · Ergonomics · doi:10.1080/00140130701577435 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
“To explain choking in perceptual-motor tasks, such as handgun shooting, several models have been put forward in the perceptual-motor and sports sciences literature (see Baumeister 1984, Masters 1992, Lewis and Linder 1997, Beilock and Carr 2001).”
BackgroundMethodTraining with anxiety has a positive effect on expert perceptual–motor performance under pressure
Oudejans, R. R. D., & Pijpers, J. R. (2009) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470210802557702 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
“Lewis and Linder (1997) and Beilock and Carr (2001) provided more direct support for this acclimatization hypothesis by demonstrating that selfconsciousness training eliminated choking under mild pressure for beginners on a golf-putting task.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialGucciardi, D. F., & Dimmock, J. A. (2007) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2006.10.007 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
“There is support for the distraction hypothesis in tasks that load heavily on working memory (e.g., many mental tasks, such as mathematical computation) but support for a self-focus explanation in tasks that make few demands on working memory (e.g., high level motor skills, such as golf putting; Beilock & Carr, 2001;…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialDevelopment and preliminary validation of the mindfulness inventory for sport.
Thienot, E., Jackson, B., Dimmock, J., Grove, J. R., Bernier, M., & Fournier, J. F. (2014) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2013.10.003 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
The effect of attentional focus on running economy
Schücker, L., Hagemann, N., Strauß, B., & Völker, K. (2009) · Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.1080/02640410903150467 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
“Beilock and Carr ( 2001 ) use the term “explicit monitoring” to describe this inward shift of attention on the step-by-step control of an automated movement.”
BackgroundInfluential\nThe influence of anxiety on visual attention in climbing
Nieuwenhuys, A., Pijpers, J. R., Oudejans, R. R. D., & Bakker, F. C. (2008) · Radboud Repository (Radboud University) · doi:10.1123/jsep.30.2.171 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
The relationship between initial errorless learning conditions and subsequent performance
Poolton, J., Masters, R. S. W., & Maxwell, J. P. (2005) · Human Movement Science · doi:10.1016/j.humov.2005.06.006 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Kajzer Mitchell, I., & Walinga, J. (2017) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.09.162 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Furley, P., & Wood, G. (2016) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2016.05.001 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
“…Type 2 processing as the potential to disturb athletic performance as predicted y the paralysis by analysis hypothesis (e.g. Baumeister, 1984; eilock & Carr, 2001; Hardy, Mullen, & Jones, 1996; Masters, 992)—i.e. skilled performance can be disrupted from direcing attention toward monitoring…”
BackgroundBeilock, S. L., & Holt, L. E. (2007) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01848.x · Cited by 162 · see citing works
“This explanation does not seem likely given that individuals could not explicate how the dyads differed, which suggests that they were not using explicit processes to choose one dyad over another (Beilock & Carr, 2001).”
BackgroundSelf-citationAudience support and choking under pressure: A home disadvantage?
Wallace, H. M., Baumeister, R. F., & Vohs, K. D. (2005) · Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.1080/02640410400021666 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
“In addition, Beilock and Carr (2001) found that training people to perform under states of high self-consciousness eliminated choking during laboratory golf putting challenges.”
BackgroundThe interplay of customer experience and commitment
Keiningham, T., Ball, J., Benoit (née Moeller), S., Bruce, H. L., Buoye, A., Dzenkovska, J., Nasr, L., Ou, Y.-C., & Zaki, M. (2017) · Journal of Services Marketing · doi:10.1108/jsm-09-2016-0337 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
“…Neal (2009, p. 584) argue, “Because people have limited introspective access to the implicit cognitive associations that guide their habits (e.g., Beilock and Carr, 2001; Foerde et al., 2006), they are forced to infer the relevant internal states from external behaviors and the contexts i which…”
BackgroundThe Sporting Life: Exploring Organizations through the Lens of Sport
Day, D. V., Gordon, S., & Fink, C. (2012) · Academy of Management Annals · doi:10.1080/19416520.2012.678697 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
“A focus of basic research on the topic appears to hone in on attentional theories and the role that closely monitoring well-learned skills has in hurting performance (Beilock & Carr, 2001 ), especially for those with established expertise in the task (Beilock, Carr, MacMahon, & Starkes, 2002 ).”
BackgroundAnalogy Learning and the Performance of Motor Skills under Pressure
Lam, W., Maxwell, J. P., & Masters, R. S. W. (2009) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.31.3.337 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Reappraising Test Anxiety Increases Academic Performance of First-Year College Students
Brady, S. T., Hard, B., & Gross, J. (2017) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000219 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
The Strength Model of Self-Control in Sport and Exercise Psychology
Englert, C. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00314 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
“, 2010). In this context, anxiety can be understood as an aversive emotional and motivational state occurring in threatening circumstances (Eysenck et al., 2007). Eysenck et al. (2007) propose that under high levels of state anxiety individuals have an automatic tendency to ruminate and to worry about the quality of t…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialThe Police Officer's Dilemma: A Decade of Research on Racial Bias in the Decision to Shoot
Correll, J., Hudson, S. M., Guillermo, S., & Ma, D. S. (2014) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12099 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
“To reduce bias in high-stakes situations, it may be important for police to train in situations that are similar to actual officer-involved shootings (Beilock & Carr, 2001).”
BackgroundAnxiety-Induced Changes in Movement Behaviour during the Execution of a Complex whole-body task
Pijpers, J. R., Oudejans, R. R. D., & Bakker, F. C. (2004) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/02724980343000945 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
“Several studies show that when perceptual-motor skills are learned under conditions inducing self-awareness (Lewis & Linder, 1997), or self-consciousness (Beilock & Carr, 2001), choking is inoculated.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialTraining with mild anxiety may prevent choking under higher levels of anxiety
Oudejans, R. R. D., & Pijpers, J. R. (2009) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2009.05.002 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Lang, J. W. B., & Bliese, P. D. (2009) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0013803 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
The Psychological Foundations of Everyday Morality and Moral Expertise
Narvaez, D. F., & Lapsley, D. K. (2021) · University of Notre Dame Press eBooks · doi:10.2307/jj.21995997.9 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Anxiety–performance relationships in climbing: a process-oriented approach
Pijpers, J. R., Oudejans, R. R. D., Holsheimer, F., & Bakker, F. C. (2003) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/s1469-0292(02)00010-9 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
Hypo‐Egoic Self‐Regulation: Exercising Self‐Control by Diminishing the Influence of the Self
Leary, M. R., Adams, C. E., & Tate, E. B. (2006) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00429.x · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Unconscious mental processes in consumer choice: Toward a new model of consumer behavior
Martin, N., & Morich, K. (2011) · Journal of Brand Management · doi:10.1057/bm.2011.10 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Choking interventions in sports: A systematic review
Gröpel, P., & Mesagno, C. (2017) · International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1750984x.2017.1408134 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
“Experimental evidence supports the primary tenets of self-focus explanations (Beilock & Carr, 2001; Gucciardi & Dimmock, 2008; Jackson et al., 2006; Mesagno et al., 2009), however, recent qualitative choking investigations (e.g., Hill et al., 2010b; Oudejans et al., 2011) question the ubiquity of…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialHealy, A. F., & Bourne, L. E. (2011) · doi:10.1002/9781444395150.ch23 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Thoughts and attention of athletes under pressure: skill-focus or performance worries?
Oudejans, R. R. D., Kuijpers, W., Kooijman, C. C., & Bakker, F. C. (2010) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2010.481331 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
“These shifts either lead to explicit attention to the sequential steps of how the skill should be executed (explicit monitoring hypothesis; Beilock & Carr, 2001; Jackson, Ashford, & Norsworthy, 2006), or perhaps even to conscious control of the sequential steps of how the skill should be executed…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialEricsson, K. A. (2019) · Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.1080/02640414.2019.1688618 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
“Some researchers (Beilock & Carr, 2001) have proposed evidence that conscious attention might interfere with performance, but a recent review and study suggest that when expert performers are allowed to verbalize their thoughts freely rather than being forced to verbalize particular information,…”
BackgroundKal, E. C., Prosée, R., Winters, M., & van der Kamp, J. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0203591 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
The Role of Anxiety in Perceiving and Realizing Affordances
Pijpers, J. R., Oudejans, R. R. D., Bakker, F. C., & Beek, P. J. (2006) · Ecological Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15326969eco1803_1 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
“…in attention have been identified as one of the key mechanisms underlying changes (mostly decrements) in performance due to anxiety (Baddeley, 1972; Beilock & Carr, 2001; Janelle, Singer, & Williams, 1999; Landers, Wang, & Courtet, 1985; Liao & Masters, 2002; Mullen et al., 2005; Weltman &…”
Vorauer, J. D., & Turpie, C. A. (2004) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.3.384 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Neuromuscular Effects of Shifting the Focus of Attention in a Simple Force Production Task
Lohse, K. R., Sherwood, D. E., & Healy, A. F. (2011) · Journal of Motor Behavior · doi:10.1080/00222895.2011.555436 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
“…shows that when the pressure to perform increases, both subjects in the laboratory and experts in the real world start to explicitly monitor their behavior, disrupting learned motor skills, and impairing performance (Baumeister, 1984; Beilock & Carr, 2001; Lewis & Linder, 1997; Wan & Huon, 2005).”
BackgroundMethodDisfluency in Swedish human–human and human–machine travel booking dialogues
Eklund, R. (2015) · KTH Publication Database DiVA (KTH Royal Institute of Technology) · doi:10.13140/rg.2.1.3015.0882 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Kalyuga, S., Rikers, R. M. J. P., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2012) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-012-9195-x · Cited by 135 · see citing works
“…to those theories, proceduralization makes a well-learned skill vulnerable to decrements under pressure because pressure raises self-consciousness and anxiety about performing correctly, which increases the attention paid to skill processes and their step-by-step control (Beilock & Carr, 2001).”
BackgroundInfluentialTrash-talking: Competitive incivility motivates rivalry, performance, and unethical behavior
Yip, J. A., Schweitzer, M. E., & Nurmohamed, S. (2017) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2017.06.002 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
“When distracted, individuals often perform poorly, relative to their normal ability (Beilock & Carr, 2001).”
Wilson, M., Smith, N. C., & Holmes, P. S. (2006) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1348/000712606x133047 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
“A series of studies by Beilock and Carr demonstrated that choking occurred as a result of explicitly monitoring the mechanics of the putting stroke in response to self-consciousness and achievement anxiety. The authors proposed that performance pressure elicited maladaptive efforts to impose step-by-step monitoring an…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialChib, V. S., De Martino, B., Shimojo, S., & O'Doherty, J. P. (2012) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2012.02.038 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
“Explicit monitoring theories suggest that performance decrements can be caused by the transfer of behavioral control from an automatized habit system to a goal-directed deliberative system (Baumeister, 1984; Beilock and Carr, 2001; Beilock et al., 2004; Langer and Imber, 1979).”
InfluentialPlante, I., de la Sablonnière, R., Aronson, J. M., & Théorêt, M. (2013) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2013.03.004 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Skill and motor control: intelligence all the way down
Fridland, E. (2016) · Philosophical Studies · doi:10.1007/s11098-016-0771-7 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
“Thirdly, Papineau appeals to the fact that, at least sometimes, conscious thought interferes with the smooth and easy flow of motor skill (Beilock and Carr 2001; Beilock, et al. 2002; Beilock 2007, 2010).”
BackgroundThomas, C. L., Cassady, J., & Finch, W. H. (2018) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/0734282916686004 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
“As demonstrated in Beilock and Carr (2001) and Beilock and Carr (2005), the cognitive-interference model is most rational for learners who have the cognitive and self-regulatory skills to enact effective learning strategies.”
Background
- Authors
- Beilock, S. L., & Carr, T. H.
- Affiliations
- Michigan State University (US)
- ORCID
- Beilock, Sian L.
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
- Published
- 2001
- Volume
- 130
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 701-725
- ISSN
- 0096-3445 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2222
- OpenAlex
- W2151259821
- Cited by
- 1,201
- References
- 58
- Citations by year
- 2026: 82 · 2025: 35 · 2024: 43 · 2023: 58 · 2022: 44 · 2021: 51 · 2020: 85 · 2019: 65 · 2018: 52 · 2017: 72 · 2016: 62 · 2015: 67 · 2014: 56 · 2013: 70 · 2012: 58
- FWCI
- 16.88
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology General (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Sport Psychology and Performance
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- choking under pressure, procedural memory, proceduralization, golf putting, episodic memory, dual-task training, mental arithmetic, attentional control
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Cognition Disorders, Humans, Psychomotor Performance, Stress, Psychological
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