The DOI matches its Crossref record; 110 of the 110 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Confirmation, disconfirmation, and information in hypothesis testing
Abstract
Strategies for hypothesis testing in scientific investigation and everyday reasoning have interested both psychologists and philosophers. A number of these scholars stress the importance of disconnrmation in reasoning and suggest that people are instead prone to a general deleterious "confirmation bias." In particular, it is suggested that people tend to test those cases that have the best chance of verifying current beliefs rather than those that have the best chance of falsifying them. We show, however; that many phenomena labeled "confirmation bias" are better understood in terms of a general positive test strategy. With this strategy, there is a tendency to test cases that are expected (or known) to have the property of interest rather than those expected (or known) to lack that property. This strategy is not equivalent to confirmation bias in the first sense; we show that the positive test strategy can be a very good heuristic for determining the truth or falsity of a hypothesis under realistic conditions. It can, however, lead to systematic errors or inefficiencies. The appropriateness of human hypothesis-testing strategies and prescriptions about optimal strategies must be understood in terms of the interaction between the strategy and the task at hand.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“A hypothesis can create bias as it often entails confirmation and other biases that generate evidence, confirming that hypothesis while ignoring (or dismissing) conflicting evidence (Baldwin, 1993; Klayman & Ha, 1987; Wagenaar et al., 1993).”
From Biased and biasing: the hidden bias cascade and bias snowball effects (2025) · cites this paper as Klayman & Ha, 1987
In the citing paper
“In this sense,selection of evidence based on relevance is related to the confirmation bias in cognitive science, where learners have been observed to (arguably maladaptively) select data which they believe to be true (i.e. they fail to attempt to falsify their hypotheses) [133].”
From Evolution and impact of bias in human and machine learning algorithm interaction (2020) · cites this paper as [133]
Citations
Cites
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.185.4157.1124 · Cited by 28,810
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
American Psychiatric Association (2022) · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890425787 · Cited by 23,476
Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1975) · Utility, Probability, and Human Decision Making · doi:10.1007/978-94-010-1834-0_8 · Cited by 22,650
(1966) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 10,293
Signal detection theory and psychophysics
Ingleby, D. (1967) · Journal of Sound and Vibration · doi:10.1016/0022-460x(67)90197-6 · Cited by 8,616
The Logic of Scientific Discovery
Bhaskar, R. (2013) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203090732-9 · Cited by 7,765
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 3rd ed
Cooper, A. M., & Michels, R. (1981) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.138.1.128 · Cited by 7,419
Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes
Lakatos, I. (1970) · Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139171434.009 · Cited by 4,649
Lord, C. G., Ross, L., & Lepper, M. R. (1979) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.37.11.2098 · Cited by 4,583
Human Inference: Strategies and Shortcomings of Social Judgment.
Cherniak, C., Nisbett, R. E., & Ross, L. D. (1983) · The Philosophical Review · doi:10.2307/2184495 · Cited by 4,196
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 801–900 of 998
Analyses of factors related to positive test bias in software testing
Leventhal, L. M., Teasley, B. E., & Rohlman, D. S. (1994) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1006/ijhc.1994.1079 · Cited by 27
Anchoring and Acquiescence Bias in Measuring Assets in Household Surveys
Hurd, M. D. (1999) · Journal of Risk and Uncertainty · doi:10.1023/a:1007819225602 · Cited by 27
“Expectancies and memory: inferring the past from what must have been,”
Hirt, E. R., Lynn, S. J., Payne, D. G., Krackow, E., & McCrea, S. M. (2004) · How expectancies shape experience. · doi:10.1037/10332-004 · Cited by 27
Feature distribution and biased estimation of visual displays.
Goldstone, R. L. (1993) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/0096-1523.19.3.564 · Cited by 27
Matching versus optimal data selection in the Wason selection task
Yama, H. (2001) · Thinking & Reasoning · doi:10.1080/13546780143000053 · Cited by 27
Another look at eliminative and enumerative behaviour in a conceptual task
Oaksford, M., & Nick Chater, A. (1994) · The European Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/09541449408520141 · Cited by 27
Extending explanatory coherence
Thagard, P. R. (1989) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00057319 · Cited by 29
Anchoring errors in clinical judgments: Type I error, adjustment, or mitigation?
Ellis, M. V., Robbins, E. S., Schult, D., Ladany, N., & Banker, J. (1990) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-0167.37.3.343 · Cited by 27
The Concept of Judgment and Huygens' Theory of Gravity (1980)
Finocchiaro, M. A. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511527517.023 · Cited by 27
Finocchiaro, M. A. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511527517.014 · Cited by 27
Pseudocontingencies—A key paradigm for understanding adaptive cognition
Fiedler, K. (2008) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199216093.003.0008 · Cited by 26
Datta, P. M., Whitmore, M., & Nwankpa, J. K. (2021) · Digital Threats Research and Practice · doi:10.1145/3428157 · Cited by 33
Determinants of Judgments of Explanatory Power: Credibility, Generality, and Statistical Relevance
Colombo, M., Bucher, L., & Sprenger, J. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01430 · Cited by 25
The conflict mindset: How internal conflicts affect self‐regulation
Kleiman, T., & Enisman, M. (2018) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12387 · Cited by 34
Learning to Play the Modeling Game
Lehrer, R., & Schauble, L. (2019) · Models and modeling in science education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-30255-9_13 · Cited by 28
Yang, Q., Clendennen, S. L., & Loukas, A. (2021) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2021.1930671 · Cited by 26
Furner, C. P., Racherla, P., & Zhu, Z. (2012) · International Journal of Networking and Virtual Organisations · doi:10.1504/ijnvo.2012.048909 · Cited by 26
The language of magnitude comparison.
Matthews, W. J., & Dylman, A. S. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/a0034143 · Cited by 26
Running for the Exit: Community Cohesion and Bank Panics
Greve, H. R., & Kim, J. (2013) · Organization Science · doi:10.1287/orsc.2013.0825 · Cited by 26
Understanding the role of cognition in science: theScience as Categoryframework
Dunbar, K. N. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511613517.009 · Cited by 26
discovery learning with computer simulations of conceptual domains
de Jong, T., & van Joolingen, W. (2007) · Cited by 26
The Role of Prepriming in Recognition-Primed Decisionmaking
McLennan, J., & Omodei, M. M. (1996) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1996.82.3c.1059 · Cited by 26
Aging, Working Memory, and Discrimination Learning
Mutter, S. A., Haggbloom, S. J., Plumlee, L. F., & Schirmer, A. (2006) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470210500343546 · Cited by 26
Pei, B. K. W., Reed, S. A., & Koch, B. S. (1992) · Accounting Organizations and Society · doi:10.1016/0361-3682(92)90009-h · Cited by 25
Augustinova, M., Oberlé, D., & Stasser, G. L. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.88.4.619 · Cited by 26
Vallée‐Tourangeau, F., Austin, N. G., & Rankin, S. (1995) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/14640749508401422 · Cited by 26
Ellis, M. V., & Blustein, D. L. (1991) · Journal of Counseling & Development · doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.1991.tb02640.x · Cited by 26
Challenges for Cognition in Intelligence Analysis
Trent, S. A., Patterson, E. S., & Woods, D. D. (2007) · Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making · doi:10.1177/155534340700100104 · Cited by 25
Impact of two types of partner, perceived or actual, in human–human and human–agent interaction
Miwa, K., & Terai, H. (2012) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2012.02.012 · Cited by 25
Overconfidence in Labor Markets
Santos-Pinto, L. P., & de la Rosa, L. E. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-57365-6_117-1 · Cited by 30
Dysfunctional learning in decision processes: the case of employee reciprocity
Markle, A. B. (2011) · Strategic Management Journal · doi:10.1002/smj.967 · Cited by 25
Can Computers Help Overcome Limitations in Human Decision Making?
Maule, A. J. (2010) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447310903498684 · Cited by 25
Well-Collision-Avoidance Management and Principles
Sawaryn, S. J., Wilson, H., Allen, W. T., Clark, P. J., Mitchell, I., Codling, J., Sentance, A., Poedjono, B., Lowdon, R., Bang, J., et al. (2018) · SPE Drilling & Completion · doi:10.2118/184730-pa · Cited by 25
Ingredient-based food fears and avoidance: Antecedents and antidotes
Wansink, B. C., Tal, A., & Brumberg, A. (2014) · Food Quality and Preference · doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2014.05.015 · Cited by 27
Pietsch, C. P. R., & Messier, W. F. (2017) · Behavioral Research in Accounting · doi:10.2308/bria-51756 · Cited by 27
When more of a good thing is better: Reply to Hayes et al. (1996).
Stiles, W. B. (1996) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.64.5.915 · Cited by 25
Case-Based, Model-Based, and Explanation-Based Styles of Reasoning in Foreign Policy
Sylvan, D. A., Ostrom, T. M., & Gannon, K. M. (1994) · International Studies Quarterly · doi:10.2307/2600872 · Cited by 25
Cognitive and Motivational Consequences of Tutoring and Discovery Learning
Reiser, B. J., Copen, W. A., Ranney, M. A., Hamid, A., & Kimberg, D. Y. (1998) · Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC) · doi:10.21236/ada347269 · Cited by 25
The illusion of science in comparative cognitionPreprint
Farrar, B. G., & Ostojić, L. (2019) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/hduyx · Cited by 28
Analyzing Decision Logs to Understand Decision Making in Serious Crime Investigations
Dando, C. J., & Ormerod, T. C. (2017) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1177/0018720817727899 · Cited by 24
Consumer Choice and Market Outcomes Under Ambiguity in Product Quality
Yoo, O. S., & Sarin, R. K. (2018) · Marketing Science · doi:10.1287/mksc.2017.1069 · Cited by 24
Does Bayes have it? Decision Support Systems in diagnostic medicine
Lindgaard, G., Pyper, C., Frize, M., & Walker, R. (2009) · International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics · doi:10.1016/j.ergon.2008.10.011 · Cited by 24
Mercier, H. (2011) · Argumentation · doi:10.1007/s10503-011-9256-1 · Cited by 28
The influence of positive hypothesis testing on youths’ online health-related information seeking
Jean, B. S., Subramaniam, M. M., Taylor, N. G., Follman, R., Kodama, C. M., & Casciotti, D. M. (2015) · Global Knowledge, Memory and Communication · doi:10.1108/nlw-07-2014-0084 · Cited by 26
The Cognitive Processes Underlying Risky Choice
Brandstätter, E., & Gußmack, M. (2012) · Journal of Behavioral Decision Making · doi:10.1002/bdm.1752 · Cited by 24
Overlap of accessible information undermines the anchoring effect
Bahník, Š., & Strack, F. (2016) · Judgment and Decision Making · doi:10.1017/s1930297500007610 · Cited by 24
Effects of Hypothesis Generation on Hypothesis Testing in Rule-Discovery Tasks
Adsit, D. J., & London, M. (1997) · The Journal of General Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221309709595505 · Cited by 24
Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1994) · International Studies in the Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1080/02698599408573474 · Cited by 24
The predictive validity of peer review: A neglected issue
Bornstein, R. F. (1991) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00065717 · Cited by 24
Incentives and disincentives to participation by clinicians in randomised controlled trials
Rendell, J., Merritt, R., & Geddes, J. R. (2006) · doi:10.1002/14651858.mr000021.pub2 · Cited by 24
How does information congruence influence diagnosis performance?
Chen, K.-J., & Li, Z. (2015) · Ergonomics · doi:10.1080/00140139.2015.1005163 · Cited by 24
Lidén, M., Gräns, M., & Juslin, P. (2018) · Psychology Crime and Law · doi:10.1080/1068316x.2018.1538417 · Cited by 23
Carving joints into nature: reengineering scientific concepts in light of concept-laden evidence
Dubova, M., & Goldstone, R. L. (2023) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2023.04.006 · Cited by 22
Beckmann, J. F., & Goode, N. (2013) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-013-9280-7 · Cited by 23
Bartlett, G. D., Johnson, E. N., & Reckers, P. M. J. (2013) · European Accounting Review · doi:10.1080/09638180.2013.809977 · Cited by 23
Anomalous Evidence, Confidence Change, and Theory Change
Hemmerich, J. A., Voorhis, K. V., & Wiley, J. (2015) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.12289 · Cited by 23
Conditional secondary transfer effect: The moderating role of moral credentials and prejudice
Jasinskaja‐Lahti, I., Vezzali, L., Ranta, M., Pacilli, M. G., Giacomantonio, M., & Pagliaro, S. (2020) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430220940401 · Cited by 23
How Good Are Fast and Frugal Heuristics?
Gigerenzer, G., Czerlinski, J., & Martignon, L. F. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.033 · Cited by 24
Hansmann, R. (2009) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.20286 · Cited by 22
Commonsense Reasoning, Logic, and Human Rationality
Oaksford, M., & Nick Chater, A. (2002) · doi:10.1093/0195147669.003.0009 · Cited by 23
Gigerenzer, G. (2002) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195153729.003.0007 · Cited by 24
A cognitive neuroscience framework for understanding causal reasoning and the law
Zeki, S., Goodenough, O. R., Fugelsang, J. A., & Dunbar, K. N. (2004) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2004.1550 · Cited by 23
Reasoning the Fast and Frugal Way
Gigerenzer, G. (2002) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195153729.003.0008 · Cited by 23
der Henst, J. V., Rossi, S., & Schroyens, W. J. (2019) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315782379-190 · Cited by 23
The role of philosophy of science in science teacher education
Bentley, M. L., & Garrison, J. W. (1991) · Journal of Science Teacher Education · doi:10.1007/bf02629750 · Cited by 23
Positive and Negative Hypothesis Testing by Cooperative Groups
Laughlin, P. R., Magley, V. J., & Shupe, E. I. (1997) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1006/obhd.1997.2687 · Cited by 23
The influence of prior belief on scientific thinking
Evans, J. S. B. T. (2002) · The Cognitive Basis of Science · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511613517.011 · Cited by 22
Investor memory of past performance is positively biased and predicts overconfidence
Walters, D. J., & Fernbach, P. M. (2021) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2026680118 · Cited by 22
Previous knowledge can induce an illusion of causality through actively biasing behavior
Yarritu, I., & Matute, H. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00389 · Cited by 23
Training the Scientific Thinking Circle in Pre- and Primary School Children
Dejonckheere, P., Keere, K. V. D., & Mestdagh, N. (2009) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220670903228595 · Cited by 27
Missing: A Serious Game for the Mitigation of Cognitive Biases
Symborski, C., Barton, M., Quinn, M. M., Morewedge, C. K., Kassam, K., & Korris, J. H. (2014) · Cited by 22
Hope to be right: Biased information seeking following arbitrary and informed predictions
Scherer, A. M., Windschitl, P. D., & Smith, A. R. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.07.012 · Cited by 25
Johnson, E. N., Reckers, P. M. J., & Bartlett, G. D. (2013) · Journal of Management Accounting Research · doi:10.2308/jmar-50639 · Cited by 22
Atran, S. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511613517.004 · Cited by 23
Betsch, T., Brinkmann, B. J., Fiedler, K., & Breining, K. (1999) · Swiss Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1024//1421-0185.58.3.151 · Cited by 22
Faucher, L., Mallon, R., Nazer, D. K., Nichols, S., Ruby, A., Stich, S., & Weinberg, J. M. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511613517.019 · Cited by 22
Improving Performance and Increasing the Use of Non-Positive Testing in a Rule-Discovery Task
Kareev, Y., Halberstadt, N., & Shafir, D. (1993) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/14640749308401036 · Cited by 22
A parallel distributed processing model of Wason’s selection task
Leighton, J. P., & Dawson, M. R. W. (2001) · Cognitive Systems Research · doi:10.1016/s1389-0417(01)00035-3 · Cited by 22
Deontic Reasoning, Modules and Innateness: A Second Look
Nick Chater, A., & Oaksford, M. (1996) · Mind & Language · doi:10.1111/j.1468-0017.1996.tb00040.x · Cited by 22
‘Attentional Bias’ in correlation judgments? Smedslund (1963) revisited
Vallée‐Tourangeau, F., Hollingsworth, L., & Murphy, R. A. (1998) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/1467-9450.00082 · Cited by 22
Science without grammar: scientific reasoning in severe agrammatic aphasia
Varley, R. A. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511613517.006 · Cited by 23
Distributing structure over time
Hummel, J. E., & Holyoak, K. J. (1993) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00031083 · Cited by 22
Introduction: what makes science possible?
Carruthers, P., Stich, S., & Siegal, M. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511613517.002 · Cited by 21
Commitment to a developing preference and predecisional distortion of information
Polman, E., & Russo, J. E. (2012) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2012.05.004 · Cited by 24
Sobel, D. M., & Kushnir, T. (2003) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 21
Ghadban, Y. A., Zgheib, N. K., Romani, M., Akl, I. B., & Nasr, R. (2022) · Tobacco Prevention & Cessation · doi:10.18332/tpc/144499 · Cited by 21
Confirmation bias emerges from an approximation to Bayesian reasoning
Pilgrim, C., Sanborn, A. N., Malthouse, E., & Hills, T. T. (2024) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2023.105693 · Cited by 31
Category learning from equivalence constraints
Hammer, R., Hertz, T., Hochstein, S., & Weinshall, D. (2008) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-008-0243-x · Cited by 21
Alcaraz‐Fossoul, J. D., Roberts, K. A., Feixat, C. B., Hogrebe, G. G., & Badia, M. G. (2015) · Forensic Science International · doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2015.11.003 · Cited by 21
The Promise and Challenges of Introducing Tree Thinking into Evolution Education
Catley, K. M., Novick, L. R., & Funk, D. J. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199730421.003.0005 · Cited by 21
Levy, N. L., & Mandelbaum, E. (2014) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199686520.003.0002 · Cited by 21
Selective assessment and positivity bias in environmental valuation.
Posavac, S. S., Brakus, J. J., Jain, S. P., & Cronley, M. L. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/1076-898x.12.1.43 · Cited by 21
Language as a Cognitive and Behavioral Structuring Resource: Question—Answer Exchanges
Semin, G. R. (2000) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/14792772043000004 · Cited by 21
Theory and configurality in clinical judgments of expert and novice psychologists.
Ganzach, Y. (1997) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.82.6.954 · Cited by 21
Which one made it go? The emergence of diagnostic reasoning in preschoolers
Fernbach, P. M., Macris, D. M., & Sobel, D. M. (2011) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2011.10.002 · Cited by 21
When nonreliability of reviews indicates solid science
Eckberg, D. L. (1991) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00065791 · Cited by 21
Resistance of Personal Risk Perceptions to Debiasing Interventions
Weinstein, N. D., & Klein, W. M. P. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.019 · Cited by 24
Active Inference in Concept Learning
Nelson, J. D., Tenenbaum, J. B., & Movellan, J. R. (2000) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 21
Learning from experience, reference points, and decision costs
Brown, P. M. (1995) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/0167-2681(94)00074-o · Cited by 21
Social Hypothesis Testing and the Role of Expertise
Borgida, E., & DeBono, K. G. (1989) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167289152008 · Cited by 21
Metadata
- Authors
- Klayman, J., & Ha, Y.-W.
- Affiliations
- University of Chicago (US)
- ORCID
- Klayman, Joshua
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1987-04
- Volume
- 94
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 211-228
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2124371667
- Cited by
- 2,094
- References
- 107
- Citations by year
- 2026: 28 · 2025: 35 · 2024: 53 · 2023: 51 · 2022: 44 · 2021: 71 · 2020: 60 · 2019: 60 · 2018: 70 · 2017: 72 · 2016: 47 · 2015: 57 · 2014: 53 · 2013: 61 · 2012: 71
- FWCI
- 22.99
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (8309586)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › General Psychology › Academic and Historical Perspectives in Psychology
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › Epistemology, Ethics, and Metaphysics
- Keywords
- hypothesis testing, confirmation bias, disconfirmation, falsification, heuristics, scientific reasoning, everyday reasoning
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review