The DOI matches its Crossref record; 110 of the 110 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Confirmation, disconfirmation, and information in hypothesis testing
Abstract
Strategies for hypothesis testing in scientific investigation and everyday reasoning have interested both psychologists and philosophers. A number of these scholars stress the importance of disconnrmation in reasoning and suggest that people are instead prone to a general deleterious "confirmation bias." In particular, it is suggested that people tend to test those cases that have the best chance of verifying current beliefs rather than those that have the best chance of falsifying them. We show, however; that many phenomena labeled "confirmation bias" are better understood in terms of a general positive test strategy. With this strategy, there is a tendency to test cases that are expected (or known) to have the property of interest rather than those expected (or known) to lack that property. This strategy is not equivalent to confirmation bias in the first sense; we show that the positive test strategy can be a very good heuristic for determining the truth or falsity of a hypothesis under realistic conditions. It can, however, lead to systematic errors or inefficiencies. The appropriateness of human hypothesis-testing strategies and prescriptions about optimal strategies must be understood in terms of the interaction between the strategy and the task at hand.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“A hypothesis can create bias as it often entails confirmation and other biases that generate evidence, confirming that hypothesis while ignoring (or dismissing) conflicting evidence (Baldwin, 1993; Klayman & Ha, 1987; Wagenaar et al., 1993).”
From Biased and biasing: the hidden bias cascade and bias snowball effects (2025) · cites this paper as Klayman & Ha, 1987
In the citing paper
“In this sense,selection of evidence based on relevance is related to the confirmation bias in cognitive science, where learners have been observed to (arguably maladaptively) select data which they believe to be true (i.e. they fail to attempt to falsify their hypotheses) [133].”
From Evolution and impact of bias in human and machine learning algorithm interaction (2020) · cites this paper as [133]
Citations
Cites
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.185.4157.1124 · Cited by 28,810
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
American Psychiatric Association (2022) · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890425787 · Cited by 23,476
Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1975) · Utility, Probability, and Human Decision Making · doi:10.1007/978-94-010-1834-0_8 · Cited by 22,650
(1966) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 10,293
Signal detection theory and psychophysics
Ingleby, D. (1967) · Journal of Sound and Vibration · doi:10.1016/0022-460x(67)90197-6 · Cited by 8,616
The Logic of Scientific Discovery
Bhaskar, R. (2013) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203090732-9 · Cited by 7,765
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 3rd ed
Cooper, A. M., & Michels, R. (1981) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.138.1.128 · Cited by 7,419
Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes
Lakatos, I. (1970) · Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139171434.009 · Cited by 4,649
Lord, C. G., Ross, L., & Lepper, M. R. (1979) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.37.11.2098 · Cited by 4,583
Human Inference: Strategies and Shortcomings of Social Judgment.
Cherniak, C., Nisbett, R. E., & Ross, L. D. (1983) · The Philosophical Review · doi:10.2307/2184495 · Cited by 4,196
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Strategic assets and organizational rent
Amit, R., & Schoemaker, P. J. H. (1993) · Strategic Management Journal · doi:10.1002/smj.4250140105 · Cited by 8,425
The case for motivated reasoning.
Kunda, Z. (1990) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.480 · Cited by 9,022
Confirmation Bias: A Ubiquitous Phenomenon in Many Guises
Nickerson, R. S. (1998) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175 · Cited by 7,267
Individual differences in reasoning: Implications for the rationality debate?
Stanovich, K. E., & West, R. F. (2000) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00003435 · Cited by 4,481
Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment
Bottom, W. P., Gilovich, T. D., Griffin, D., & Kahneman, D. J. (2004) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.2307/20159081 · Cited by 3,583
Reasoning the fast and frugal way: Models of bounded rationality.
Gigerenzer, G., & Goldstein, D. G. (1996) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.103.4.650 · Cited by 3,504
Norm theory: Comparing reality to its alternatives.
Kahneman, D. J., & Miller, D. T. (1986) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.93.2.136 · Cited by 3,247
The antecedents and consequences of customer satisfaction for firms
Anderson, E. W., & Sullivan, M. W. (1993) · Marketing Science · doi:10.1287/mksc.12.2.125 · Cited by 4,610
All Frames Are Not Created Equal: A Typology and Critical Analysis of Framing Effects
Levin, I. P., Schneider, S. L., & Gaeth, G. J. (1998) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1006/obhd.1998.2804 · Cited by 2,592
Response strategies for coping with the cognitive demands of attitude measures in surveys
Krosnick, J. A. (1991) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.2350050305 · Cited by 2,487
Investor Psychology and Asset Pricing
Hirshleifer, D. A. (2001) · The Journal of Finance · doi:10.1111/0022-1082.00379 · Cited by 2,430
Motivated closing of the mind: “Seizing” and “freezing”
Kruglanski, A. W., & Webster, D. M. (1996) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.103.2.263 · Cited by 2,379
Slovic, P., Finucane, M., Peters, E., & MacGregor, D. G. (2002) · Heuristics and Biases · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.025 · Cited by 2,349
“Clinical versus Actuarial Judgment.”
Dawes, R. M., Faust, D., & Meehl, P. E. (1989) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.2648573 · Cited by 2,298
(2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098 · Cited by 2,293
Policy Implementation and Cognition: Reframing and Refocusing Implementation Research
Spillane, J. P., Reiser, B. J., & Reimer, T. (2002) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543072003387 · Cited by 2,127
Krosnick, J. A. (1999) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.50.1.537 · Cited by 1,852
The weighing of evidence and the determinants of confidence
Griffin, D., & Tversky, A. (1992) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(92)90013-r · Cited by 1,866
Representativeness revisited: Attribute substitution in intuitive judgment.
Kahneman, D., & Frederick, S. (2002) · Heuristics and Biases · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.004 · Cited by 3,476
Scientific discovery learning with computer simulations of conceptual domains
De Jong, T., & Van Joolingen, W. R. (1998) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543068002179 · Cited by 1,593
Gilbert, D. T. (1991) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.46.2.107 · Cited by 1,526
Necessary Condition Analysis (NCA)
Dul, J. (2015) · Organizational Research Methods · doi:10.1177/1094428115584005 · Cited by 1,402
Models of ecological rationality: The recognition heuristic.
Goldstein, D. G., & Gigerenzer, G. (2002) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.109.1.75 · Cited by 1,352
Comparison processes in social judgment: Mechanisms and consequences.
Mussweiler, T. (2003) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.110.3.472 · Cited by 1,345
Why do humans reason? Arguments for an argumentative theory
Mercier, H., & Sperber, D. (2011) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x10000968 · Cited by 2,254
Feeling validated versus being correct: A meta-analysis of selective exposure to information
Hart, W., Albarracín, D., Eagly, A. H., Brechan, I., Lindberg, M. J., & Merrill, L. (2009) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0015701 · Cited by 1,292
Learning in and about complex systems
Sterman, J. D. (1994) · System Dynamics Review · doi:10.1002/sdr.4260100214 · Cited by 1,279
Identity negotiation: Where two roads meet.
Swann, W. B. (1987) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.53.6.1038 · Cited by 1,270
Support theory: a nonextensional representation of subjective probability
Tversky, A., & Koehler, D. J. (1994) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.101.4.547 · Cited by 1,167
Managing What Consumers Learn from Experience
Hoch, S. J., & Deighton, J. (1989) · Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1177/002224298905300201 · Cited by 1,143
Thagard, P. R. (1989) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00057046 · Cited by 1,075
Dual space search during scientific reasoning
Klahr, D., & Dunbar, K. (1988) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1207/s15516709cog1201_1 · Cited by 1,058
A rational analysis of the selection task as optimal data selection.
Oaksford, M., & Chater, N. (1994) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.101.4.608 · Cited by 1,065
A Theory of Unconscious Thought
Dijksterhuis, A., & Nordgren, L. F. (2006) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00007.x · Cited by 1,089
What We Know and Don't Know about Online Word-of-Mouth: A Review and Synthesis of the Literature
King, R. A., Racherla, P., & Bush, V. D. (2014) · Journal of Interactive Marketing · doi:10.1016/j.intmar.2014.02.001 · Cited by 1,130
Credibility and trust of information in online environments: The use of cognitive heuristics
Metzger, M. J., & Flanagin, A. J. (2013) · Journal of Pragmatics · doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2013.07.012 · Cited by 1,000
Entrepreneurs' Optimism And New Venture Performance: A Social Cognitive Perspective
Hmieleski, K. M., & Baron, R. A. (2009) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2009.41330755 · Cited by 1,036
Impact of Product-Harm Crises on Brand Equity: The Moderating Role of Consumer Expectations
Dawar, N., & Pillutla, M. M. (2000) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1509/jmkr.37.2.215.18729 · Cited by 981
Explaining the enigmatic anchoring effect: Mechanisms of selective accessibility.
Strack, F., & Mussweiler, T. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.73.3.437 · Cited by 981
Blackwell Handbook of Judgment and Decision Making
(2004) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470752937 · Cited by 1,041
The Anchoring-and-Adjustment Heuristic: Why the Adjustments Are Insufficient
Epley, N., & Gilovich, T. (2006) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01704.x · Cited by 920
Influence of fake news in Twitter during the 2016 US presidential election
Bovet, A., & Makse, H. A. (2019) · CUNY Academic Works (City University of New York) · Cited by 882
Type 2 diabetes and cancer: umbrella review of meta-analyses of observational studies
Tsilidis, K. K., Kasimis, J. C., López, D. S., Ntzani, E., & Ioannidis, J. P. A. (2015) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.g7607 · Cited by 885
A social comparison theory meta-analysis 60+ years on.
Gerber, J. P., Wheeler, L., & Suls, J. (2018) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000127 · Cited by 808
An Evaluation of a Cognitive Theory of Response-Order Effects in Survey Measurement
Krosnick, J. A., & Alwin, D. F. (1987) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1086/269029 · Cited by 825
Eyewitness identification procedures: Recommendations for lineups and photospreads.
Wells, G. L., Small, M., Penrod, S., Malpass, R. S., Fulero, S. M., & Brimacombe, C. A. E. (1998) · Law and Human Behavior · doi:10.1023/a:1025750605807 · Cited by 839
How Scientists Really Reason: Scientific Reasoning in Real-World Laboratories
Dunbar, K. N. (1994) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/4879.003.0017 · Cited by 760
Dunning, D., Meyerowitz, J. A., & Holzberg, A. D. (1989) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1082 · Cited by 758
Varieties of Confirmation Bias
Klayman, J. (1995) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60315-1 · Cited by 755
Self-citationInfluence of fake news in Twitter during the 2016 US presidential election
Bovet, A., & Makse, H. A. (2019) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-018-07761-2 · Cited by 701
Jonas, E., Schulz-Hardt, S., Frey, D., & Thelen, N. (2001) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.80.4.557 · Cited by 725
Précis of Simple heuristics that make us smart
Todd, P. M., & Gigerenzer, G. (2000) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00003447 · Cited by 739
Relevance theory explains the selection task
Sperber, D. (1995) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/0010-0277(95)00666-m · Cited by 711
First Impressions Matter: A Model of Confirmatory Bias
Rabin, M., & Schrag, J. L. (1999) · The Quarterly Journal of Economics · doi:10.1162/003355399555945 · Cited by 1,001
Unbelieving the unbelievable: Some problems in the rejection of false information.
Gilbert, D. T., Krull, D. S., & Malone, P. S. (1990) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.59.4.601 · Cited by 681
Dunning, D. A., Meyerowitz, J. A., & Holzberg, A. D. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.020 · Cited by 689
The development of scientific thinking skills in elementary and middle school
Zimmerman, C. (2007) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2006.12.001 · Cited by 749
Chernev, A. (2003) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/376808 · Cited by 695
The heuristic-analytic theory of reasoning: Extension and evaluation
Evans, J. S. B. T. (2006) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03193858 · Cited by 682
Shastri, L., & Ajjanagadde, V. (1993) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00030910 · Cited by 629
Drummond, C., & Fischhoff, B. (2017) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1704882114 · Cited by 607
Anchoring, Activation, and the Construction of Values
Chapman, G. B., & Johnson, E. J. (1999) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1006/obhd.1999.2841 · Cited by 592
Mussweiler, T., & Strack, F. (1999) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.1998.1364 · Cited by 585
A Multidisciplinary Analysis of the Nature, Meaning, and Measurement of Trust
Tschannen-Moran, M., & Hoy, W. K. (2000) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543070004547 · Cited by 995
Why Do Partisan Media Polarize Viewers?
Levendusky, M. S. (2013) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1111/ajps.12008 · Cited by 587
Mele, A. R. (2003) · doi:10.1093/019515617x.001.0001 · Cited by 553
Under what conditions does theory obstruct research progress?
Greenwald, A. G., Pratkanis, A. R., Leippe, M. R., & Baumgardner, M. H. (1986) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.93.2.216 · Cited by 574
Wouldn’t it be nice? Predicting future feelings
Loewenstein, G. F., & Schkade, D. A. (1999) · Cited by 518
Brambilla, M., Rusconi, P., Sacchi, S., & Cherubini, P. (2010) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.744 · Cited by 570
The forensic confirmation bias: Problems, perspectives, and proposed solutions.
Kassin, S. M., Dror, I. E., & Kukucka, J. (2013) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2013.01.001 · Cited by 634
The Development of Scientific Reasoning Skills
Zimmerman, C. (2000) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1006/drev.1999.0497 · Cited by 540
The Influence of Vaccine-critical Websites on Perceiving Vaccination Risks
Betsch, C., Renkewitz, F., Betsch, T., & Ulshöfer, C. (2010) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105309353647 · Cited by 493
How scientists think: On-line creativity and conceptual change in science.
Dunbar, K. N. (2004) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10227-017 · Cited by 482
Beware of samples! A cognitive-ecological sampling approach to judgment biases.
Fiedler, K. (2000) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.107.4.659 · Cited by 480
Decisions and the evolution of memory: Multiple systems, multiple functions.
Klein, S. B., Cosmides, L., Tooby, J., & Chance, S. (2002) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.109.2.306 · Cited by 464
An evaluation of dual-process theories of reasoning
Osman, M. (2004) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03196730 · Cited by 444
Social perception and social reality: A reflection-construction model.
Jussim, L. (1991) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.98.1.54 · Cited by 446
Why we still use our heads instead of formulas: Toward an integrative approach.
Kleinmuntz, B. (1990) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.107.3.296 · Cited by 439
Heuristics and biases: Expertise and task realism in auditing.
Smith, J. F., & Kida, T. (1991) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.109.3.472 · Cited by 437
Women are credited less in science than men
Ross, M. B., Glennon, B. M., Murciano-Goroff, R., Berkes, E. G., Weinberg, B. A., & Lane, J. I. (2022) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-022-04966-w · Cited by 437
Belief revision in children: The role of prior knowledge and strategies for generating evidence
Schauble, L. (1990) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-0965(90)90048-d · Cited by 420
Unpacking, repacking, and anchoring: Advances in support theory.
Rottenstreich, Y., & Tversky, A. (1997) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.104.2.406 · Cited by 446
BIASES IN THE INTERPRETATION AND USE OF RESEARCH RESULTS
MacCoun, R. J. (1998) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.259 · Cited by 436
Incorporating the Irrelevant: Anchors in Judgments of Belief and Value
Chapman, G. B., & Johnson, E. J. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.008 · Cited by 424
Sloman, S. A. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.024 · Cited by 412
A theory of implicit and explicit knowledge
Dienes, Z., & Perner, J. (1999) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x99002186 · Cited by 672
Motivated recruitment of autobiographical memories.
Sanitioso, R. B., Kunda, Z., & Fong, G. T. (1990) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.59.2.229 · Cited by 401
Laughlin, P. R., Hatch, E. C., Silver, J. S., & Boh, L. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.90.4.644 · Cited by 390
How people decide what they want to know
Sharot, T., & Sunstein, C. R. (2020) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-019-0793-1 · Cited by 386
Product Experience Is Seductive
Hoch, S. J. (2002) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/344422 · Cited by 382
The Ups and Downs of Social Comparison: Mechanisms of Assimilation and Contrast.
Mussweiler, T., Rüter, K., & Epstude, K. (2004) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.6.832 · Cited by 379
Krueger, J. I., & Funder, D. C. (2004) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x04000081 · Cited by 374
Students' transition from an engineering model to a science model of experimentation
Schauble, L., Klopfer, L. E., & Raghavan, K. (1991) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.3660280910 · Cited by 370
When less is more: Counterfactual thinking and satisfaction among Olympic medalists.
Medvec, V. H., Madey, S. F., & Gilovich, T. D. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.69.4.603 · Cited by 526
Maintaining stereotypes in the face of disconfirmation: Constructing grounds for subtyping deviants.
Kunda, Z., & Oleson, K. C. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.68.4.565 · Cited by 368
Explanation, imagination, and confidence in judgment.
Koehler, D. J. (1991) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037//0033-2909.110.3.499 · Cited by 561
Yin, D., Mitra, S., & Zhang, H. (2016) · Information Systems Research · doi:10.1287/isre.2015.0617 · Cited by 373
Fisher, C. D. (2003) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.219 · Cited by 388
On the natural selection of reasoning theories
Cheng, P. W., & Holyoak, K. J. (1989) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/0010-0277(89)90031-0 · Cited by 362
The Impact of Candidate Name Order on Election Outcomes
Miller, J. M., & Krosnick, J. A. (1998) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1086/297848 · Cited by 360
Metadata
- Authors
- Klayman, J., & Ha, Y.-W.
- Affiliations
- University of Chicago (US)
- ORCID
- Klayman, Joshua
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1987-04
- Volume
- 94
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 211-228
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2124371667
- Cited by
- 2,094
- References
- 107
- Citations by year
- 2026: 28 · 2025: 35 · 2024: 53 · 2023: 51 · 2022: 44 · 2021: 71 · 2020: 60 · 2019: 60 · 2018: 70 · 2017: 72 · 2016: 47 · 2015: 57 · 2014: 53 · 2013: 61 · 2012: 71
- FWCI
- 22.99
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (8309586)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › General Psychology › Academic and Historical Perspectives in Psychology
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › Epistemology, Ethics, and Metaphysics
- Keywords
- hypothesis testing, confirmation bias, disconfirmation, falsification, heuristics, scientific reasoning, everyday reasoning
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
