Cited by 823Neural and Behavioral Psychology StudiesVisual perception and processing mechanismsMotor Control and Adaptation

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Conditional and unconditional automaticity: a dual-process model of effects of spatial stimulus–response correspondence

De Jong, Ritske, Liang, Chia-Chin, Lauber, Erick·1994·Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance

DOI 10.1037/0096-1523.20.4.731

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“According to an absorption account, the NDE should decrease in magnitude as overall RT increases (for the basis of this logic see work on the Simon effect; De Jong et al., 1994; Risko & Besner, 2008; Rubichi et al., 1997).”
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Williams, D. R., Rouder, J. N., & Rast, P. (2019) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/gwatq · Cited by 5
“, delta plots, De Jong et al., 1994). As we demonstrated, our methodology allows for probing mean–variance lawfulness at the individual level. However, we argue that the “law” should first be clarified for within-person experimental effects. For example, if slower reaction times are predicted to necessarily be more in…”
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“…of RTs length, a trend that is opposite to that found in many visual Simon tasks (Craft & Simon, 1970; Miller & Schwars, 2021; Simon, 1990), where congruency effects are stronger at fast RTs and progressively decay and even reverse at longer RTs (De Jong et al., 1994; Rubichi et al., 1997).”
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“Therefore, using a distributional approach (Balota & Abrams, 1995; De Jong et al., 1994), employing tools such as the Conditional Accuracy Function (CAF), could reveal when the congruency effects start to diverge between social and non-social stimuli.”
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“…distributions of RTs in each single condition (e.g., Van Zandt, 2000), after which it is possible to compare conditions using delta plots (e.g., De Jong et al., 1994), quantile-quantile plots (e.g., Myerson, Adams, Hale, & Jenkins, 2003), estimated divergence points (e.g., Reingold & Sheridan,…”
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“For the Simon task, the dual-route model [24] states that conflicts arise due to competing automatic and controlled (response) selection processes.”
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Alcohol-induced deficits in reactive control of response selection and inhibition are counteracted by a seemingly paradox increase in proactive control
Stock, A., Wendiggensen, P., Ghin, F., & Beste, C. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-28012-5 · Cited by 5
“Post-hoc paired t tests revealed that the intoxication effect (intoxicated minus sober) was significantly larger in incongruent Go trials (63 ± 10 ms) than in congruent Go trials (56 ± 10 ms) (t(34) = 2.”
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“Additional analyses of response times were conducted using an adaptation of the delta plot analysis (de Jong et al., 1994).”
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“In a second step, we focused on delta-plot analysis (e.g. De Jong et al., 1994) and considered the variation of the taboo effect as a function of response latency.”
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“…when selecting a response, resulting in facilitation or impairment of task performance (e.g., Botvinick et al., 2001; Coles et al., 1985; De Jong et al., 1994; Eimer et al., 1995; Hübner et al., 2010; Miller & Schwarz, 2021; Mittelstädt & Miller, 2020; Rid-derinkhof et al., 1995;…”
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Congruency reversals in an accessory signal Simon task with auditory and visual stimuli
Soetens, E. L. L., Maetens, K., Zeischka, P., & Henderickx, D. (2010) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2010.04.001 · Cited by 5
Stimulus–response correspondence across peripersonal space is unaffected by chronic unilateral limb loss
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“These plots show the magnitude of the difference between two conditions as a function of time speed (see De Jong et al., 1994; Ridderinkhof, van den Wildenberg, Wijnen, & Burle, 2004, pp. 369–377).”
Background
Chapter 5 Lifespan studies of mental chronometry: Insights derived from chronopsychophysiology
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“…control is generally attributed to the prefrontal lobes and is widely believed to involve the inhibition of contextually inappropriate responses (De Jong et al., 1994; Eimer, 1999; Hazeltine, Poldrack, & Gabrieli, 2000; Heil et al., 2000; Jonides, Smith, Marshuetz, Koeppe, & Reuter-Lorenz, 1998;…”
Background
Transfer of an implied incompatible spatial mapping to a Simon task
Luo, C., & Proctor, R. W. (2015) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2015.11.011 · Cited by 4
“…an incompatible color mapping has been replicated in many studies, including ones with keypresses made with left and right index fingers (e.g., De Jong et al., 1994; Hasbroucq & Guiard, 1991; Lu & Proctor, 1994; Wühr & Biebl, 2009), although the color labels for the keys may need to be visible…”
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Reaching into response selection: Stimulus and response similarity influence central operations.
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Background
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“A common explanation for both the Simon effect and the spatial Stroop effect is that these effects result from activation within a dual-route framework (e.g., De Jong et al., 1994).”
Background
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“Conceptually, the dual-route model (De Jong et al., 1994; Keye et al., 2013) has proposed that response selection in congruent Simon task trials operates via the direct route, requiring little computations during response selection.”
Background
A common framework for language comprehension and language production?
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Handle-Hand Compatibility Effects for the Right and Left Hand Using Reach-to-Touch Movements
Garofalo, G., Mussi, D. R., & Riggio, L. (2020) · Advances in Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.5709/acp-0281-8 · Cited by 4
“There is a general consensus that the SE depends on responseselection processes of two parallel and independent routes, the conditional and unconditional route (De Jong et al., 1994; Lu & Proctor, 1995).”
Background
Developmental changes in impulse control: Trial‐by‐trial EMG dissociates the evolution of impulse strength from its subsequent suppression
Śmigasiewicz, K., Ambrosi, S., Blaye, A., & Burle, B. (2022) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.13273 · Cited by 5
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“The initial dip of LRP in the incompatible condition of the Simon task reflects the activation of incorrect response evoked by spatially compatible S-R associations (Leuthold, 2011; De Jong et al., 1994).”
Background
Visual filtering in time and space among persons with Down syndrome
Matsuba, E. S. M., Russo, N. N., McKernan, E. P., et al. (2022) · Journal of Intellectual Disability Research · doi:10.1111/jir.12958 · Cited by 4
Motor demands influence conflict processing in a mouse-tracking Simon task
Mittelstädt, V., Leuthold, H., & Mackenzie, I. G. (2022) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-022-01755-y · Cited by 4
“…visual Simon effect with horizontal key press responses is usually larger for faster than for slower responses as becomes evident from distributional analyses (e.g., Burle et al., 2013; De Jong et al., 1994; Luo & Proctor, 2020; Proctor et al., 2011; Wiegand & Wascher, 2005; Wascher et al., 2001).”
BackgroundMethod
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Markovitch, B., Markopoulos, P., & Birk, M. V. (2024) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3613904.3642418 · Cited by 7
Hierarchical Knowledge Influences Stimulus-Response Compatibility Effects
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“This pattern of results is consistent with dual-process models of SRC, which postulate S±R translation as well as automatic activation processes to account for SRC effects (e.g. De Jong et al., 1994; Eimer et al., 1995).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Levels of visuo-spatial selection: An ERP study of negative priming
Gibbons, H., Wiegleb, N., & Stähl, J. (2013) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2013.08.004 · Cited by 4
Colour in action: Evidence for a redundancy signal effect when driving motor responses by combined colour and spatial cues.
Ivanov, I. V., & Werner, A. (2009) · Psychology & Neuroscience · doi:10.3922/j.psns.2009.1.04 · Cited by 4
“The observers viewed the display binocularly at 57cm distance in a dark room.”
Background
Visuomotor and motorvisual priming with different types of set-level congruency: evidence in support of ideomotor theory, and the planning and control model (PCM)
Thomaschke, R., Miall, R. C., Rueß, M., Mehta, P. R., & Hopkins, B. (2017) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-017-0885-3 · Cited by 4
The accessory Simon effect within and across visual dimensions
Magen, H. (2018) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/1747021818782769 · Cited by 3
“Similar to this task, the typical Simon effect first increases with RT and is reduced only at the longer RTs (De Jong et al., 1994; Proctor et al., 2011).”
Psychophysiological Studies of Unattended Information Processing
Valle‐Inclán, F., de Labra, C., & Redondo, M. (2000) · The Spanish Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1017/s1138741600005576 · Cited by 4
Action Selection
Proctor, R. W., & Vu, K. L. (2003) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/0471264385.wei0411 · Cited by 11
A Diffusion Model Account of Age Differences in Post-Error Slowing
Dutilh, G., Forstmann, B. U., Vandekerckhove, J., & Wagenmakers, E. (2012) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e502412013-685 · Cited by 4
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Janczyk, M., Mackenzie, I. G., Ulrich, R., & Koob, V. (2026) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-026-02878-8 · Cited by 5
“1 The resulting activations for one or the other response are merged and if, as in congruent trials, they indicate the same response, selection is faster compared with when they indicate different responses, as in incongruent trials (e.g., De Jong, Liang, & Lauber, 1994; Kornblum et al., 1990).”
On the role of the insula cortex in inhibitory control: insights from alpha and theta directed connectivity dynamics
Eggert, P., Mückschel, M., Talebi, N., Beste, C., & Ghin, F. (2025) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhaf292 · Cited by 4
How Does the Presence of Others Influence Control Inhibition? Contradictory Evidence Using an Antisaccade and Stop Signal Task
Garcia‐Marques, T., & Fernandes, A. (2023) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941231153328 · Cited by 3
“We use the delta plots to approach the inhibition function based on the index of RT, analyzing the IC ability effect distributions by following the same principles that were applied in other inhibition tasks, such as Stroop (de Jong et al., 1994; Ridderinkhof, 2002).”
Method
Leveraging time for better impulse control: Longer intervals help ADHD children inhibit impulsive responses
Korolczuk, I., Burle, B., Casini, L. A., Gerc, K., Lustyk, D., Senderecka, M., & Coull, J. T. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0319621 · Cited by 6
Inhibition Resolves Simon Conflict: Evidence From Electroencephalogram Decoding
Lee, Y. S., Bae, G., & Cho, Y. S. (2025) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.a.59 · Cited by 3
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McCormick, C. R., & Christie, J. J. (2025) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-025-03090-x · Cited by 3
“However, we now know there is an interaction between alerting and response compatibility, in which alerting can activate the direct path between matching stimulus and response features (De Jong et al., 1994).”
Gaining the upper hand: Comparison of alphabetic and keyboard positions as spatial features of letters producing distinct S–R compatibility effects
Kozlik, J., & Neumann, R. (2013) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2013.04.015 · Cited by 5
Role of stimulus and response feature overlap in between-task logical recoding
Treccani, B., Ronconi, L., & Umiltà, C. A. (2015) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-015-0728-z · Cited by 3
Event-related lateralized readiness potential correlates of the emotion-priming Simon effect
Shang, Q., Fu, H., Qiu, W., & Ma, Q. (2016) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-016-4614-8 · Cited by 3
Distribution of Response Time, Cortical, and Cardiac Correlates during Emotional Interference in Persons with Subclinical Psychotic Symptoms
Holper, L., Aleksandrowicz, A., Müller, M., Ajdacic‐Gross, V., Haker, H., Fallgatter, A. J., Hagenmuller, F., Kawohl, W., & Wulf Rössler, A. (2016) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2016.00172 · Cited by 3
“To obtain a detailed understanding of the behavioral RT data within the emotional Stroop task, we chose a graphical technique called delta plot (De Jong et al., 1994; Ridderinkhof et al., 2005; Speckman et al., 2008; Pratte et al., 2010).”
Method
Emotional interference during conflict resolution depends on task context
Ahmed, S. P., & Sebastian, C. L. (2019) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2019.1701417 · Cited by 3
Learning of irrelevant stimulus-response associations modulates cognitive control
Xia, X., Guo, M., & Wang, L. E. (2023) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2023.120206 · Cited by 3
Examining the automaticity and symmetry of sound–shape correspondences
Chen, Y., & Huang, P. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1172946 · Cited by 3
An Evidence Accumulation Account of Masked Translation Priming in Two Bilingual Populations
Scrimshire, C., Amador, S. A., Aldariz, A. G., Meza, G., & Gomez, P. (2023) · Brain Science · doi:10.3390/brainsci13071066 · Cited by 3
Similarities of SNARC, cognitive Simon, and visuomotor Simon effects in terms of response time distributions, hand-stimulus proximity, and temporal dynamics
Yan, L., Ma, Y., Wei-bin, Y., Xiang, X., & Nan, W. (2023) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-023-01866-0 · Cited by 4
“In addition to RT distributions (De Jong et al., 1994) and hand-stimulus proximity, the temporal dynamics of cognitive conflict could vary among these effects; the drift diffusion model (DDM, Ratcliff, 1978; Ratcliff et al., 2016) provides a quantitative approach of characterize the temporal…”
Is there a lower visual field advantage for object affordances? A registered report
Warman, A., Clark, A., Malcolm, G. L., et al. (2024) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218241230812 · Cited by 3
“When the task is to judge colour, however, we expected the handle compatibility effect to be present in the earlier quartiles, but to rapidly dissipate in the latter quartiles, consistent with the literature on the temporal profile of the Simon effect (De Jong et al., 1994; Proctor et al., 2011).”
Result
Is letter position coding a unique skill for developing and adult readers in early word processing? Evidence from masked priming
Gómez, P., Marcet, A., Rocabado, F., & Perea, M. (2025) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-025-02080-w · Cited by 3
“They have been widely used in cognitive con-trol tasks (e.g., De Jong et al., 1994) and have been used to describe the effects of identity primes versus unrelated primes in adults by Fernández-López et al. (2022).”
Emotion-induced attentional bias: does it modulate the spatial Simon effect?
Lien, M.-C., Proctor, R. W., & Hinkson, J. (2020) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2020.1785847 · Cited by 3
“It has been suggested that the automatic response activation from stimulus location decays over time (e.g. De Jong et al., 1994; Hommel, 1993), leaving the attentional enhancement component to play a role in the spatial Simon effect for longer RT.”
Background
The effect of reducing attentional resources on selective suppression in the Simon task
Grandjean, A., Suárez, I., & Casini, L. A. (2022) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218221092421 · Cited by 3
“This mechanism could be the active and progressive inhibition of the response activated automatically by the location of the stimulus, as has been proposed in the activation-suppression model (De Jong et al., 1994; Ridderinkhof, 2002a, 2002b).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Effects of Visual Cue and Response Assignment on Spatial Stimulus Coding in Stimulus–Response Compatibility
Nishimura, A., & Yokosawa, K. (2011) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2011.611888 · Cited by 3
Effects of spatial response coding on distractor processing: Evidence from auditory spatial negative priming tasks with keypress, joystick, and head movement responses
Möller, M., Mayr, S., & Buchner, A. (2014) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-014-0760-x · Cited by 3
Spatial coding of word-initial letters: Evidence from a Simon-like task
Treccani, B., Cubelli, R., Sala, S. D., & Umiltà, C. A. (2008) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/pbr.15.1.168 · Cited by 3
Independence between implicit and explicit processing as revealed by the Simon effect
Lo, S.-Y., & Yeh, S. (2010) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2010.11.007 · Cited by 3
Modulation of responses to emotional information in pathological anxiety
Schrooten, M. G. S., Smulders, F. T. Y., & Arntz, A. R. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Psychopathology · doi:10.5127/jep.012710 · Cited by 3
Action induction due to visual perception of linear motion in depth
Classen, C., & Kibele, A. (2015) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-015-0724-3 · Cited by 3
Chapter 15. Cognitive mechanisms underlying performance differences between monolinguals and bilinguals
Grundy, J. G., & Timmer, K. (2016) · Bilingual processing and acquisition · doi:10.1075/bpa.2.16gru · Cited by 6
A Simon-like effect in Go/No-Go tasks performed in isolation
Davranche, K., Carbonnell, L., Belletier, C., et al. (2018) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-018-1534-6 · Cited by 3
Distributional properties of semantic interference in picture naming: Bayesian meta-analyses
Fuhrmeister, P., & Bürki, A. (2021) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-021-02016-6 · Cited by 3
“We followed the procedure in, for example, De Jong et al. (1994), Ridderinkhof et al. (2004), Roelofs et al. (2011), and Shao et al. (2013) to calculate the slope as follows: slope(quintile 4, quintile 5) = (delta(quintile 5) − delta(quintile 4))/(mean(quintile 5) − mean(quintile 4)) For each study, we computed the co…”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Sensitivity of different measures of the visibility of masked primes: Influences of prime–response and prime–target relations
Khalid, S., Peter König, B., & Ulrich Ansorge, A. (2011) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2011.06.014 · Cited by 3
Saccadic eye movements do not trigger a joint Simon effect
Liepelt, R., Porcu, E., Stenzel, A., & Lappe, M. (2019) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-019-01639-0 · Cited by 3
A measure of the interference effect distribution
Gajdos, T., Servant, M., Hasbroucq, T., & Davranche, K. (2020) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-019-01339-6 · Cited by 3
“De Jong et al. (1994) introduced a particular method, called delta plot , to describe the link between response speed and the size of an experimental effect.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Quality Over Quantity: Focusing on High-Conflict Trials to Improve the Reliability and Validity of Attentional Control MeasuresPreprint
Moretti, L., Koch, I., Hornjak, R., & von Bastian, C. C. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/ndjy6 · Cited by 3
Trial-by-trial modulations in a spatial Stroop task: A distribution analysis on social and non-social targets
Tanaka, Y., Oyama, T., Ishikawa, K., et al. (2025) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218251332591 · Cited by 2
“Congruence between these two codes facilitates response formation, whereas incongruence leads to interference, resulting in a standard congruency effect (Castel et al., 2007; De Jong et al., 1994; Ellinghaus et al., 2024; Juncos-Rabadán et al., 2008).”
Influential
Validating the directional command flanker task: An auditory analog of the arrows flanker
Petley, L., Brzac, J., Meyers, L. A., & Gascoyne, S. J. (2025) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-025-02839-4 · Cited by 2
“For accuracy, conditional accuracy functions (CAFs; Luce, 1986) are common, whereas RT slowing with conflict (the RT effect) is typically expressed in delta plots (De Jong et al., 1994).”
Working memory load and its impact on space-based and motion-based stimulus-response correspondence (SRC) effects
Styrkowiec, P., Babijew, A., Dunaj, K., & Wierzbicki, M. (2020) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2020.1722135 · Cited by 1
“It was De Jong et al. (1994) who first used RTs distribution analysis to study the Simon effect.”
Method

Authors: De Jong, R., Liang, C.-C., & Lauber, E.
Venue: Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1994
Volume: 20
Issue: 4
Pages: 731-750
ISSN: 0096-1523 (ISSN-L)
1939-1277
DOI: 10.1037/0096-1523.20.4.731
OpenAlex: W4248568169
Cited by: 806
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 13 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 34 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 36 · 2021: 31 · 2020: 35 · 2019: 30 · 2018: 35 · 2017: 31 · 2016: 35 · 2015: 37 · 2014: 39 · 2013: 40 · 2012: 28
FWCI: 5.96
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance (publishedVersion)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Visual perception and processing mechanisms
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Motor Control and Adaptation
Keywords: automaticity, dual-process models, spatial attention, stimulus-response compatibility

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Conditional and unconditional automaticity: a dual-process model of effects of spatial stimulus–response correspondence

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