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Working memory, attention control, and the N-back task: a question of construct validity
Open accessAbstract
The N-back task requires participants to decide whether each stimulus in a sequence matches the one that appeared n items ago. Although N-back has become a standard "executive" working memory (WM) measure in cognitive neuroscience, it has been subjected to few behavioral tests of construct validity. A combined experimental- correlational study tested the attention-control demands of verbal 2- and 3-back tasks by presenting n = 1 "lure" foils. Lures elicited more false alarms than control foils in both 2- and 3-back tasks, and lures caused more misses to targets that immediately followed them compared with control targets, but only in 3-back tasks. N-back thus challenges control over familiarity-based responding. Participants also completed a verbal WM span task (operation span task) and a marker test of general fluid intelligence (Gf; Ravens Advanced Progressive Matrices Test; J. C. Raven, J. E. Raven, & J. H. Court, 1998). N-back and WM span correlated weakly, suggesting they do not reflect primarily a single construct; moreover, both accounted for independent variance in Gf. N-back has face validity as a WM task, but it does not demonstrate convergent validity with at least 1 established WM measure.
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“Stimuli presentation was pseudo-randomized to avoid the occurrence of lure trials (i.e., non-target letters that match a recent letter in the sequence but not the letter N-back), which are known to elicit more false alarms (FA) and misses than non-lure non-targets because of their familiarity and resemblance to targets (see Kane et al., 2007).”
From Working Memory Reloaded: Tyrosine Repletes Updating in the N-Back Task (2013) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
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In the citing paper
“Both maintenance and disengagement are important for problem-solving (e.g., Carpenter et al., 1990), but the relative contribution of each could be driving the different relationships of complex span tests and the n-back with fluid intelligence, as well as their less-than-perfect correlation with each other (e.g., Kane et al., 2007).”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“WM is itself an umbrella term encompassing diverse experimental paradigms, from maintenance of perceptual, spatial or verbal information to complex “n-back” and “span” tasks, with uncertain construct validity (Kane, Conway, Miura, & Colflesh, 2007; Shallice & Cooper, 2011).”
From Strategic offloading of delayed intentions into the external environment (2015) · cites this paper as Kane, Conway, Miura, & Colflesh, 2007
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
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“In conditions with n = 2 or higher (where the match is for the stimulus that appeared two or more items ago), this task requires the on-line monitoring and updating of WM content, which is known to be cognitively demanding (Kane et al., 2007).”
From Working Memory Reloaded: Tyrosine Repletes Updating in the N-Back Task (2013) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
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“One of the most common tasks used in these WM training studies is the N-back, an updating task that correlates significantly with measures of higher-level cognition, such as Matrix Reasoning20–24.”
From Near transfer to an unrelated N-back task mediates the effect of N-back working memory training on matrix reasoning (2022) · cites this paper as [23]
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“Two-back performance did not correlate significantly with either measure, whereas three-back performance correlated descriptively more strongly with Raven's matrices than with operation span.”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
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“Indeed, correlations between the n-back and operation span ranged from nonsignificant to weak (all rs ≤ .22).”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
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“Furthermore, operation span and the n-back each accounted for unique variance in fluid intelligence, suggesting a dissociation between the two measures.”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
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“Kane et al. (2007) identified recall versus recognition as one candidate.”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
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“Based on the cognitive load of the 2-back condition (20–22)”
From Dynamic reconfiguration of frontal brain networks during executive cognition in humans (2015) · cites this paper as [22]
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Abid, R., Ammar, A., Maaloul, R., Boudaya, M., Souissi, N., & Hammouda, O. (2024) · European Journal of Investigation in Health Psychology and Education · doi:10.3390/ejihpe14040055 · Cited by 19
“In this study, we use the n-back task programmed by Robinson and Fuller [51] via computer [52] to assess working memory and attention.”
MethodDoes music counteract mental fatigue? A systematic review
Ding, C., Soh, K. G., Sun, H., Roslan, S. B., Cao, S., & Zhao, Y. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0316252 · Cited by 15
Hepdarcan, I., & Can, S. (2025) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-025-07318-9 · Cited by 15
“To assess the construct validity, researchers often compared it to other WM measures, such as the Multidimensional Aptitude Battery (Hockey & Geffen, 2004), operational span tasks, fluid intelligence, reading, digit span tasks, and pointing tasks (Kane et al., 2007; Jaeggi et al., 2010).”
InfluentialTraining attentional control in older adults
MacKay‐Brandt, A. (2011) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2011.568046 · Cited by 14
“Three measures of working memory included Operation Span (Ospan; Unsworth, Heitz, Schrock, & Engle, 2005 ), Reading Span ( Turner & Engle, 1989 ), and the two-back task ( Kane, Conway, Miura, & Colflesh, 2007 ).”
Maresh, E. L., Teachman, B. A., & Coan, J. A. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Psychopathology · doi:10.5127/jep.059516 · Cited by 14
“It has been hypothesized that n-back tasks tap into recognition memory, whereas complex span tasks tap into serial recall (Jaeggi et al., 2010; Kane et al., 2007).”
BackgroundDu, X., Ji, Y., Chen, T., Tang, Y., & Han, B. (2018) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/pag0000311 · Cited by 15
Planungsaspekte und Konstruktionsphasen von Tests und Fragebogen
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Working memory in adults who stutter using a visual N-back task
Gkalitsiou, Z., & Byrd, C. T. (2021) · Journal of Fluency Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jfludis.2021.105846 · Cited by 14
“Therefore, it has been suggested that participants must rely on the processes of familiarity and recollection (e.g., Jaseggi et al., 2010; Kane et al., 2007).”
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Kessler, Y., Baruchin, L. J., & Bouhsira-Sabag, A. (2015) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-015-0717-2 · Cited by 16
Assessment of Processing Capacity
Birney, D. P., Bowman, D. B., Beckmann, J. F., & Seah, Y. Z. (2012) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000146 · Cited by 14
“The GLST requires greater processing + storage resources that define working memory (Baddeley, 1986; Kane et al., 2007), as well as deductive reasoning with an additional rule (each color/shape combination can appear only once in the matrix), and these are central to Gf processes (as seen from the SEM analyses summari…”
MethodFisher, D. J., Daniels, R., Jaworska, N., Knobelsdorf, A., & Knott, V. (2011) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2011.10.029 · Cited by 14
“This finding is substantiated by a plethora of research employing the N-back task, which tends to be load-sensitive, as increases in memory load (i.e. transition between 0-, 1-, 2- and 3-back conditions) result in slower reaction times and decreased accuracy (Kane et al., 2007; Owen et al., 2005).”
BackgroundMethodResultRhind, S. G., Shiu, M. Y., Tenn, C. C., Nakashima, A., Jetly, R., Sajja, V. S. S. S., Long, J. B., & Vartanian, O. A. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms26051808 · Cited by 13
“The n-back task, a test of working memory requiring the maintenance and updating of dynamic rehearsal sets [107], used sensitivity (d ′ ) as the dependent variable, with higher positive values indicating better sensitivity and negative values reflecting judgement errors.”
Gibson, W., Jones, C. A., Hunter, K. F., & Wagg, A. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0257506 · Cited by 13
Chen, X., & Li, S. (2022) · Biomedical Signal Processing and Control · doi:10.1016/j.bspc.2022.104308 · Cited by 13
Varma, P., Postnova, S., Knock, S. A., Howard, M. E., Aidman, E., Rajaratnam, S. M. W., & Sletten, T. L. (2024) · Clocks & Sleep · doi:10.3390/clockssleep6020019 · Cited by 13
“Controlled response was measured using the NBack [49], where participants need to determine whether a stimulus they see was the same as the one seen two image(s) before.”
MethodWu, C., Zhang, C., Li, X., Ye, C., & Astikainen, P. (2024) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2024.2423812 · Cited by 21
“N-back, requiring continuous updating and greater cognitive effort (Kane et al., 2007), is more sensitive to detecting the cognitive benefits of sports, which involve dynamic decision-making and rapid adjustments during play.”
Levels of Metals in Hair in Childhood: Preliminary Associations with Neuropsychological Behaviors
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Painful engrams: Oscillatory correlates of working memory for phasic nociceptive laser stimuli
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“As is customary in SDT analyses, the HIT and FA values equal to 0 or 1 were adjusted by .01 (see Kane, Conway, Miura & Colflesh, 2007).”
MethodGomaa, A., Alles, A., Meiser, E., Rupp, L. H., Molz, M., & Reyes, G. (2022) · International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications (AutomotiveUI) · doi:10.1145/3543174.3546840 · Cited by 13
“Finally, while the n-back task is widely used to control MWL levels in the driving context [4, 70–72, 90, 92], it is limited in regards to construct, concurrent, and ecological validity [49, 51].”
MethodCremen, I. A., & Carson, R. G. (2017) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2017.00276 · Cited by 14
“In spite of weak convergence with other measures of WM (e.g., poor correlation with operational span (OSPAN), Kane et al., 2007, and with backward digit span, Miller et al., 2009), the task has become paradigmatic Frontiers in Human Neuroscience | www.frontiersin.org 3 May 2017 | Volume 11 |…”
MethodMaintaining fixation does not increase demands on working memory relative to free viewing
Armson, M. J., Ryan, J. D., & Levine, B. (2019) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.6839 · Cited by 13
Better cognitive efficiency is associated with increased experimental anxiety
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Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back
Burgoyne, A. P., Frank, D. J., & Macnamara, B. N. (2025) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-024-02622-0 · Cited by 20
“Thus, performance on the n -back can be supported by recognition or a familiarity function rather than explicit recall (Oberauer, 2009; Szmalec et al., 2011), and these abilities may reflect different aspects of the working memory system (Kane et al., 2007).”
InfluentialExploring the n-back task: insights, applications, and future directions
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Who gives a criterion shift? A uniquely individualistic cognitive trait.
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“Following previous n - back paradigms ( Jaeggi et al., 2010; Kane et al., 2007), trials were fixed in length; each item was displayed for 500 ms, with an interstimulus interval of 1500 ms and a total trial length of 2 seconds.”
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“This task activates brain areas for short-term memory and action planning, located in the PFC [27].”
Utility of the N-back task in survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia
Luxton, J., Brinkman, T. M., Kimberg, C., Robison, L., Hudson, M., & Krull, K. (2014) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2014.957168 · Cited by 10
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“One of the most common models used for inducing cognitive workload is the n-back model, where n-back task 30 is administered.”
Increased response conflict in recreational cocaine polydrug users
Sellaro, R., Hommel, B., & Colzato, L. S. (2013) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-013-3724-9 · Cited by 14
Evidence of systematic attenuation in the measurement of cognitive deficits in schizophrenia.
Thomas, M. L., Patt, V. M., Bismark, A. W., Sprock, J., Tarasenko, M. A., Light, G. A., & Brown, G. G. (2017) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000256 · Cited by 11
“Reliability estimates reported in the literature have ranged from poor to good (e.g., Jaeggi et al., 2010; Kane et al., 2007; Salthouse, Atkinson, & Berish, 2003; Shelton et al., 2010) and appear to depend on N-back load condition and stimulus modality (e.g., Jaeggi et al., 2010; Salthouse et al.,…”
Stair walking is more energizing than low dose caffeine in sleep deprived young women
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Gaze data reveal individual differences in relational representation processes.
Zonca, J., Coricelli, G., & Polonio, L. (2019) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000723 · Cited by 11
“The n -back task tests the ability to maintain and update a dynamic set of information, targeting processes related to cognitive control, such as inhibition and interference resolution (Kane, Conway, Miura, & Colflesh, 2007).”
Reichert, C., Maire, M., Gabel, V., Hofstetter, M., Viola, A., Kolodyazhniy, V., Strobel, W. M., Goetz, T., Bachmann, V., Landolt, H., et al. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0113734 · Cited by 14
The COMT Val158Met polymorphism does not modulate the after‐effect of tDCS on working memory
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“The primary task (two-back visuo-tactile task) is based upon the N-back design, which is widely utilized for the measurement of working memory in cognitive neuroscience (Kane et al., 2007).”
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“These stimuli increase interference and demand a stronger mechanism of inhibitory control over irrelevant information and WM processing [89,90].”
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“We implemented two N-back tasks which required sustained attention and working memory [46], both associated with PFC processing [47, 48].”
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“Previous research has assessed each individual’s capacity to judge and evaluate the indoor environment using visual tasks and tests, including reading comprehension, the Stroop test, and working memory 1,18,30,32 .”
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“Participants completed two phonological short-term memory tasks: digit span (e.g., Jacquemot & Scott, 2006) and 2-back (e.g., Kane et al., 2007).”
MethodPreferred, but not objective temperature predicts working memory depletion
Sellaro, R., Hommel, B., Manaï, M., & Colzato, L. S. (2014) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-014-0558-4 · Cited by 11
“…temperature of &20 C was associated with the typical performance observed in previous studies (Kane et al., 2007; Colzato et al., 2013a, b), in which participants’ accuracy—the most sensitive dependent variable of this task (Kane et al., 2007)—is significantly reduced in the more demanding task.”
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“The N-back task, which requires information storage, updating, and manipulation, has become the dominant tool used in assessing WM control functions (Kane et al., 2007; Owen et al., 2005;Walker et al., 2001).”
MethodSpecific Effects of Anger Rumination on Particular Executive Functions
Ding, X., Yang, Y., Qian, M., & Gordon-Hollingsworth, A. T. (2015) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/02.09.pr0.117c24z8 · Cited by 11
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“Participants viewed a sequence of red squares within a matrix and in between presentation of the red squares, judged whether two figures were symmetrical.”
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Effects of Fatigue on Cognitive Performance in Long-Duration Simulated Flight Missions
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“The updating task measured standard “executive” working memory; i.e., more complex verbal working memory (Kane et al., 2007).”
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“Te validity of the test to measure working memory has been reported in several studies [25–28].”
Byrne, E. M., Gilbert, R. A., Kievit, R., & Holmes, J. (2024) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2024.2393388 · Cited by 12
“…fluid intelligence on short-term memory (Colom, Rubio, Shih, & Santacreu, 2006; Colom et al ., 2008) or the ability to control attention (Engle, 2018; Kane et al., 2007; Shipstead et al ., 2016), or a role for WM processes in supporting performance on fluid reasoning tasks (Oberauer et al., 2007).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialKazinczi, C., Kocsis, K., Boross, K., Racsmány, M., Klivènyi, P., Vécsei, L., & Must, A. (2024) · BMC Neurology · doi:10.1186/s12883-024-03813-x · Cited by 15
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Comparison of executive functions in people with high and low resilience
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Decoding Cognitive Load: Eye-Tracking Insights into Working Memory and Visual Attention
Jin, X., Bai, Y., Xu, L., Ma, S., Shi, D., Yu, L., & Fan, M. (2025) · ACM Symposium on Eye Tracking Research and Applications (ETRA) · doi:10.1145/3715669.3725864 · Cited by 10
“For the working memory task, we adopted the standard n-back task, commonly used in cognitive neuroscience [Kane et al. 2007].”
Working memory and fluid intelligence as predictors of work engagement—Testing preliminary models
Kulikowski, K., & Orzechowski, J. (2018) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3500 · Cited by 12
Bouak, F., Vartanian, O. A., & Hofer, K. (2019) · Journal of Military Veteran and Family Health · doi:10.3138/jmvfh.2018-0055 · Cited by 10
TAG-ME again: A serious game for measuring working memory
Hu, Y. Z., Parimoo, S., Chignell, M., Lowe, C. J., & Morton, J. B. (2023) · Applied Neuropsychology Adult · doi:10.1080/23279095.2023.2183361 · Cited by 10
“In experimental settings, working memory maintenance and capacity are assessed with span tasks, such as operation span and reading span, whereas updating is typically tested using the N-Back task (Conway et al., 2005; Kane et al., 2007; Schmiedek et al., 2009; Wilhelm et al., 2013).”
Schubert, A., Löffler, C., Sadus, K., Göttmann, J., Hein, J., Schröer, P., Teuber, A., & Hagemann, D. (2023) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2023.105438 · Cited by 10
Cognitive Load and Deception Detection Performance
Wielgopolan, A., & Imbir, K. K. (2023) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.13321 · Cited by 13
Pupillary correlates of individual differences in n-back task performance
Robison, M. K., & Garner, L. D. (2024) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-024-02853-2 · Cited by 10
“Despite its wide use and face validity as a working memory measure, some have found that the metric only correlates weakly with other measures of working memory (Kane et al., 2007; Redick & Lindsey, 2013), whereas others have found stronger correlations (Schmiedek et al., 2009, 2014).”
Chandio, Y., Interrante, V. L., & Anwar, F. M. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics · doi:10.1109/tvcg.2024.3372120 · Cited by 10
“Patterns exceeding 7 blocks prove challenging for most, though individual capacities differ [41, 54].”
BackgroundExecutive functions in patients with bilateral and unilateral peripheral vestibular dysfunction
Schöne, C. G., Vibert, D., & Mast, F. W. (2024) · Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1007/s00415-024-12267-7 · Cited by 10
“Working memory span and working memory performance correlate weakly and seem to measure different aspects of working memory [50, 96].”
Challenges for an Interdisciplinary Consideration of Cognitive Training
Birney, D. P. (2015) · New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development · doi:10.1002/cad.20087 · Cited by 10
“” As mentioned previously, complex-span and n-back tasks both tend to correlate with Gf but are poorly correlated with each other (Kane et al., 2007; Redick & Lindsey, 2013).”
BackgroundWorking memory at work: How the updating process alters the nature of working memory transfer
Zhang, Y., Verhaeghen, P., & Cerella, J. (2011) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2011.10.012 · Cited by 10
Kovacs, K., & Conway, A. R. A. (2016) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2016.1202744 · Cited by 11
Self-citationKhayyer, Z., Nejati, V., & Fathabadi, J. (2017) · Biotechnology and Health Sciences · doi:10.5812/bhs.57652 · Cited by 8
“84 and it has strong face validity and widespread use as a measure of working memory in clinical and experimental settings (51).”
BackgroundKranz, M. B., Voss, M. W., Cooke, G. E., Banducci, S. E., Burzynska, A. Z., & Kramer, A. F. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0204280 · Cited by 11
Pereg, M., Shahar, N., & Meiran, N. (2018) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-018-1122-4 · Cited by 10
Hemodynamic Changes in Response to Aerobic Exercise: Near-infrared Spectroscopy Study
Kim, H. J., Bae, S., Huh, J. H., Lee, J. W., & Han, D. H. (2020) · International Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1055/a-1198-8465 · Cited by 12
“Since subjects must maintain and update a dynamic rehearsal set when presented with each stimulus, N-back assesses the working memory [44].”
BackgroundRubin, D., Hildebrand, D. F. N., & Malloy‐Diniz, L. F. (2022) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.21646 · Cited by 10
Perks of blindness: Enhanced verbal memory span in blind over sighted adults
Arcos, K., Jaeggi, S. M., & Grossman, E. D. (2022) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2022.147943 · Cited by 11
“While backward spans rely largely on maintaining and manipulating items, interference tasks require participants to suppress task-irrelevant information, and n-back tasks impose even stronger demands on manipulating information (Kane et al., 2007).”
BackgroundChildren’s Motor Learning and Working Memory: The Role of Visual and Verbal Analogy Learning
Ramezani, F., Saemi, E., & Doustan, M. (2022) · Polish Journal of Sport and Tourism · doi:10.2478/pjst-2022-0008 · Cited by 10
Asamoah, S., Siegler, J. C., Chang, D., Scholey, A. B., Yeung, A., & Cheema, B. S. (2013) · Physiology Journal · doi:10.1155/2013/847325 · Cited by 10
The Effect of Aerobic Exercise on Neural Networks of Attention and Working Memory
Eskandarnejad, M., & Rezaei, F. (2018) · The Neuroscience Journal of Shefaye Khatam · doi:10.29252/shefa.6.2.31 · Cited by 10
Working memory training shows immediate and long-term effects on cognitive performance in children
Pugin, F., Metz, A. J., Stauffer, M., Wolf, M., Jenni, O. G., & Huber, R. (2015) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.3665.3 · Cited by 11
Najarzadegan, M., Nejati, V., & Amiri, N. (2016) · KAUMS Journal · Cited by 9
Ekiz, D., Can, Y. S., & Ersoy, C. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing · doi:10.1109/taffc.2021.3110211 · Cited by 12
“N-Back task is a protocol used in cognitive science studies to measure the working memory [24].”
MethodMenu, I., Rezende, G., Stanc, L. L., Borst, G., & Cachia, A. (2022) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2022.101231 · Cited by 14
Effects of Human-Animal Interactions on Affect and Cognition
Thayer, E. R., & Stevens, J. R. (2022) · Human-animal interaction bulletin · doi:10.1079/hai.2022.0015 · Cited by 15
Limpo, T., Rasteiro, I., Aguiar, S., & Magalhães, S. (2022) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-022-02003-5 · Cited by 8
“Given their distinctive features, it is likely that these tasks tap into different dimensions of working memory (Bühner et al., 2006; Jaeggi et al., 2010; Kane et al., 2007) that may relate differently with mindfulness.”
BackgroundTask switching involves working memory: Evidence from neural representation
Wang, Y., Zhou, X., Peng, X.-R., & Hu, X. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1003298 · Cited by 17
“The results showed that high-span participants performed better than low-span participants, but working memory capacity did not interact with task switching performance (Kane et al., 2007).”
ResultHancock, A. S., Warren, C. M., Barrett, T. S., Bolton, D. A. E., & Gillam, R. B. (2023) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.2895 · Cited by 9
“1.1 N-back tasks N-back is a useful paradigm for assessingWMbecause it measures the ability to store, manipulate, and update items in memory while inhibiting irrelevant information (Kane et al., 2007; Rottschy et al., 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialEbert, K. D., Pham, G. T., Levi, S., & Eisenreich, B. R. (2023) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-023-02078-5 · Cited by 9
“During the past two decades, an alternative paradigm—the n -back task—has become a prominent approach to measuring this construct (Kane et al., 2007; Pelegrina et al., 2015).”
BackgroundTake your time: Slow brain rhythms predict fluid intelligence
Ociepka, M., Kałamała, P., & Chuderski, A. (2023) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2023.101780 · Cited by 10
Zhu, D., Zhu, B., Zhao, J., Zhang, C., He, J., Song, D., & Han, T. (2024) · Games for Health Journal · doi:10.1089/g4h.2022.0183 · Cited by 9
Creating a new dynamic measure of the useful field of view using gaze-contingent displays
Ringer, R. V., Johnson, A. P., Gaspar, J. G., Neider, M. B., Crowell, J., Kramer, A. F., & Loschky, L. C. (2014) · ACM Symposium on Eye Tracking Research and Applications (ETRA) · doi:10.1145/2578153.2578160 · Cited by 9
Pugin, F., Metz, A. J., Stauffer, M., Wolf, M., Jenni, O. G., & Huber, R. (2014) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.3665.1 · Cited by 9
Vartanian, O. A., Tenn, C. C., Sullivan‐Kwantes, W., Blackler, K., Smith, I., Peng, H. T., Jarmasz, J., Caddy, N., Blais, A.-R., Pannell, D., et al. (2017) · Military Psychology · doi:10.1037/mil0000159 · Cited by 9
Li, Y., Chen, J., Zheng, X., Liu, J., Peng, C., Liao, Y., & Liu, Y. (2022) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.07.064 · Cited by 10
Practice makes imperfect: Working memory training can harm recognition memory performance
Matzen, L. E., Trumbo, M., Haass, M. J., Hunter, M. A., Silva, A., Stevens-Adams, S. M., Bunting, M. F., & O’Rourke, P. (2016) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-016-0629-4 · Cited by 9
Altered working memory capacity for social threat words in high versus low social anxiety
Yeung, R. C., & Fernandes, M. A. (2019) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2019.1626838 · Cited by 9
Metadata
- Authors
- Kane, M. J., Conway, A. R. A., Miura, T. K., & Colflesh, G. J. H.
- Affiliations
- University of North Carolina at Greensboro (US)
- Princeton University (US)
- University of Illinois Chicago (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
- Published
- 2007-05
- Volume
- 33
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 615-622
- ISSN
- 0278-7393 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1285
- OpenAlex
- W1978600950
- Cited by
- 933
- References
- 40
- Citations by year
- 2026: 50 · 2025: 68 · 2024: 73 · 2023: 49 · 2022: 61 · 2021: 74 · 2020: 70 · 2019: 67 · 2018: 63 · 2017: 57 · 2016: 50 · 2015: 57 · 2014: 49 · 2013: 34 · 2012: 32
- FWCI
- 21.75
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- libres.uncg.edu
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- NC Digital Online Collection of Knowledge and Scholarship (The University of North Carolina at Greensboro) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Air Force Office of Scientific Research (F49620-00-1-131)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- n-back task, working memory, attentional control, construct validity, convergent validity, operation span, fluid intelligence, executive function
- MeSH terms
- Attention, Humans, Individuality, Intelligence, Memory, Short-Term, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Problem Solving, Psychomotor Performance, Reaction Time, Semantics, Serial Learning, Verbal Learning
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