The DOI matches its Crossref record; 41 of the 41 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Working memory, attention control, and the N-back task: a question of construct validity
Open accessAbstract
The N-back task requires participants to decide whether each stimulus in a sequence matches the one that appeared n items ago. Although N-back has become a standard "executive" working memory (WM) measure in cognitive neuroscience, it has been subjected to few behavioral tests of construct validity. A combined experimental- correlational study tested the attention-control demands of verbal 2- and 3-back tasks by presenting n = 1 "lure" foils. Lures elicited more false alarms than control foils in both 2- and 3-back tasks, and lures caused more misses to targets that immediately followed them compared with control targets, but only in 3-back tasks. N-back thus challenges control over familiarity-based responding. Participants also completed a verbal WM span task (operation span task) and a marker test of general fluid intelligence (Gf; Ravens Advanced Progressive Matrices Test; J. C. Raven, J. E. Raven, & J. H. Court, 1998). N-back and WM span correlated weakly, suggesting they do not reflect primarily a single construct; moreover, both accounted for independent variance in Gf. N-back has face validity as a WM task, but it does not demonstrate convergent validity with at least 1 established WM measure.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Stimuli presentation was pseudo-randomized to avoid the occurrence of lure trials (i.e., non-target letters that match a recent letter in the sequence but not the letter N-back), which are known to elicit more false alarms (FA) and misses than non-lure non-targets because of their familiarity and resemblance to targets (see Kane et al., 2007).”
From Working Memory Reloaded: Tyrosine Repletes Updating in the N-Back Task (2013) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Both maintenance and disengagement are important for problem-solving (e.g., Carpenter et al., 1990), but the relative contribution of each could be driving the different relationships of complex span tests and the n-back with fluid intelligence, as well as their less-than-perfect correlation with each other (e.g., Kane et al., 2007).”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“WM is itself an umbrella term encompassing diverse experimental paradigms, from maintenance of perceptual, spatial or verbal information to complex “n-back” and “span” tasks, with uncertain construct validity (Kane, Conway, Miura, & Colflesh, 2007; Shallice & Cooper, 2011).”
From Strategic offloading of delayed intentions into the external environment (2015) · cites this paper as Kane, Conway, Miura, & Colflesh, 2007
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“In conditions with n = 2 or higher (where the match is for the stimulus that appeared two or more items ago), this task requires the on-line monitoring and updating of WM content, which is known to be cognitively demanding (Kane et al., 2007).”
From Working Memory Reloaded: Tyrosine Repletes Updating in the N-Back Task (2013) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“One of the most common tasks used in these WM training studies is the N-back, an updating task that correlates significantly with measures of higher-level cognition, such as Matrix Reasoning20–24.”
From Near transfer to an unrelated N-back task mediates the effect of N-back working memory training on matrix reasoning (2022) · cites this paper as [23]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Two-back performance did not correlate significantly with either measure, whereas three-back performance correlated descriptively more strongly with Raven's matrices than with operation span.”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Indeed, correlations between the n-back and operation span ranged from nonsignificant to weak (all rs ≤ .22).”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, operation span and the n-back each accounted for unique variance in fluid intelligence, suggesting a dissociation between the two measures.”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Kane et al. (2007) identified recall versus recognition as one candidate.”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
In the citing paper
“Based on the cognitive load of the 2-back condition (20–22)”
From Dynamic reconfiguration of frontal brain networks during executive cognition in humans (2015) · cites this paper as [22]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 · Cited by 15,798
Individual differences in working memory and reading
Daneman, M., & Carpenter, P. A. (1980) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(80)90312-6 · Cited by 6,336
On the generalized distance in statistics
Mahalanobis, P. C. (1936) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · Cited by 6,068
A capacity theory of comprehension: individual differences in working memory
Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1992) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.99.1.122 · Cited by 4,153
N-back working memory paradigm: a meta-analysis of normative functional neuroimaging studies.
Owen, A. M., McMillan, K. M., Laird, A. R., & Bullmore, E. (2005) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.20131 · Cited by 3,560
Pragmatics of measuring recognition memory: Applications to dementia and amnesia.
Snodgrass, J. G., & Corwin, J. (1988) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037//0096-3445.117.1.34 · Cited by 3,093
Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: A latent-variable approach.
Engle, R. W., Tuholski, S. W., Laughlin, J. E., & Conway, A. R. A. (1999) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.128.3.309 · Cited by 3,078
Self-citationWorking memory span tasks: A methodological review and user’s guide
Conway, A. R. A., Kane, M. J., Bunting, M. F., Hambrick, D. Z., Wilhelm, O., & Engle, R. W. (2005) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03196772 · Cited by 2,882
Self-citationPragmatics of measuring recognition memory: Applications to dementia and amnesia.
Snodgrass, J. G., & Corwin, J. (1988) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.117.1.34 · Cited by 2,527
Kane, M. J., & Engle, R. W. (2002) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03196323 · Cited by 2,229
Self-citation
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- [3]3. Baddeley, A. D. (1986). Working memory. London: Oxford University Press.
- [34]34. Raven, J. C., Raven, J. E., & Court, J. H. (1998). Progressive matrices. Oxford, England: Oxford Psychologists Press.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–200 of 931
A simultaneous examination of two forms of working memory training: Evidence for near transfer only
Minear, M., Brasher, F., Guerrero, C. B., Brasher, M., Moore, A., & Sukeena, J. (2016) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-016-0616-9 · Cited by 85
Recreational cocaine polydrug use impairs cognitive flexibility but not working memory
Colzato, L. S., Huizinga, M., & Hommel, B. (2009) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-009-1650-0 · Cited by 95
“We employed the digit span task (Wechsler 1987) to assess the storage component and the mental counters task (Huizinga et al. 2006) and the N-back task (see, Kane et al. 2007, for a recent review) to assess the operational component.”
MethodRetiring the Central Executive
Logie, R. H. (2016) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2015.1136657 · Cited by 101
Working Memory Reloaded: Tyrosine Repletes Updating in the N-Back Task
Colzato, L. S., Jongkees, B. J., Sellaro, R., & Hommel, B. (2013) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2013.00200 · Cited by 87
“In conditions with n= 2 or higher (where the match is for the stimulus that appeared two or more items ago), this task requires the online monitoring and updating of WM content, which is known to be cognitively demanding (Kane et al., 2007).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialStorbeck, J., & Maswood, R. (2015) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2015.1034091 · Cited by 100
Schmiedek, F., Li, S., & Lindenberger, U. (2009) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0014685 · Cited by 99
“Interpretation of these findings as indicative about age-related decreases in WM capacity in general hinges on the validity of our spatial n-back tasks as a measure of WM (cf. Kane et al., 2007).”
BackgroundResult“Unfocus” on foc.us: commercial tDCS headset impairs working memory
Steenbergen, L., Sellaro, R., Hommel, B., Lindenberger, U., Kühn, S., & Colzato, L. S. (2015) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-015-4391-9 · Cited by 88
Long-term meditation: the relationship between cognitive processes, thinking styles and mindfulness
Fabio, R. A., & Towey, G. E. (2017) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-017-0844-3 · Cited by 89
Your Eyes Tell: Leveraging Smooth Pursuit for Assessing Cognitive Workload
Kosch, T., Hassib, M., Woźniak, P. W., Buschek, D., & Alt, F. (2018) · Proceedings of the 2018 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3173574.3174010 · Cited by 79
“Throughout the study, we use the N -back task to manipulate cognitive workload by demanding working memory with different difficulty levels [27].”
MethodTaxing cognitive capacities reduces choice consistency rather than preference: A model-based test.
Olschewski, S., Rieskamp, J., & Scheibehenne, B. (2018) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0000403 · Cited by 83
Ploughman, M., Eskes, G. A., Kelly, L. P., Kirkland, M. C., Devasahayam, A. J., Wallack, E. M., Abraha, B., Hasan, S. M. M., Downer, M. B., Keeler, L., et al. (2019) · Neurorehabilitation and neural repair · doi:10.1177/1545968319832605 · Cited by 81
Shokrkon, A., & Nicoladis, E. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.848696 · Cited by 114
Inattentional Blindness and Individual Differences in Cognitive Abilities
Kreitz, C., Furley, P., Memmert, D., & Simons, D. J. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0134675 · Cited by 83
“Nevertheless, as there has been research suggesting that n-back tasks and complex-span tasks do not reflect a single construct [41,49], we additionally report correlations of each single measure (Table 1).”
BackgroundMahjoory, K., Čėsnaitė, E., Hohlefeld, F. U., Villringer, A., & Nikulin, V. V. (2018) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.12.001 · Cited by 76
Divergent thinking and the core executive functions: a state-of-the-art review
Palmiero, M., Fusi, G., Crepaldi, M., Borsa, V. M., & Rusconi, M. L. (2022) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-022-01091-4 · Cited by 90
Neuromorphic learning, working memory, and metaplasticity in nanowire networks
Loeffler, A., Álvarez, A. D., Zhu, R., Ganesh, N., Shine, J. M., Nakayama, T., & Kuncic, Z. (2023) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.adg3289 · Cited by 81
Brielmann, A. A., & Pelli, D. G. (2017) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2017.04.018 · Cited by 79
Mindfulness enhances cognitive functioning: a meta-analysis of 111 randomized controlled trials
Zainal, N. H., & Newman, M. G. (2023) · Health Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/17437199.2023.2248222 · Cited by 106
“N-Back Task (Kane et al., 2007; Owen et al., 2005): Participants were instructed to retain information for a speci fi c stimulus.”
MethodWorking memory and inattentional blindness
Bredemeier, K., & Simons, D. J. (2012) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-011-0204-8 · Cited by 87
Differences in Brain Structure and Function Among Yoga Practitioners and Controls
Gothe, N. P., Hayes, J. M., Temali, C., & Damoiseaux, J. S. (2018) · Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnint.2018.00026 · Cited by 87
Webb, S. L., Loh, V., Lampit, A., Bateman, J. E., & Birney, D. P. (2018) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-018-9374-8 · Cited by 86
“…as a working memory task, particularly within the neuropsychology literature, there is empirical evidence that it is not particularly well correlated with other WM tasks, particularly complex-span tasks, which entail high-WM abilities (Kane et al. 2007; Oberauer 2005; Schmiedek et al. 2014).”
BackgroundTesting a Cognitive Control Model of Human Intelligence
Chen, Y., Spagna, A., Wu, T., Kim, T. H., Wu, Q., Chen, C., Wu, Y., & Fan, J. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-39685-2 · Cited by 80
Sex differences on prefrontally-dependent cognitive tasks
Evans, K., & Hampson, E. (2014) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2014.11.006 · Cited by 83
The effects of bilingualism on conflict monitoring, cognitive control, and garden-path recovery
Teubner-Rhodes, S. E., Mishler, A., Corbett, R., Andreu, L., Sanz‐Torrent, M., Trueswell, J. C., & Novick, J. M. (2016) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2016.02.011 · Cited by 86
Functional Brain Imaging in Schizophrenia: Selected Results and Methods
Brown, G. G., & Thompson, W. K. (2010) · Current topics in behavioral neurosciences · doi:10.1007/7854_2010_54 · Cited by 75
“has been done with this task (Kane et al. 2007), the N-back task provides a face valid assessment of an individual’s ability to update WM with newly presented sequential information on a moment-by-moment basis, to maintain the sequential information in the face of distraction, to monitor and manipulate online informat…”
MethodDifficulties in working memory updating in individuals with intellectual disability
Carretti, B., Belacchi, C., & Cornoldi, C. (2010) · Journal of Intellectual Disability Research · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2788.2010.01267.x · Cited by 74
“Results were sometimes inconsistent, and in some cases updating and WM were modestly correlated (0.20, see Kane et al. 2007), whereas in other cases the correlation was relatively high (0.55, Shamosh et al. 2008) or extremely strong (0.96, Schmiedek et al. 2009), to such an extent that updating and…”
ResultInfluentialDaglas, R., Yücel, M., Cotton, S., Allott, K., Hetrick, S. E., & Berk, M. (2015) · International Journal of Bipolar Disorders · doi:10.1186/s40345-015-0024-2 · Cited by 74
“The Bergen n-back test was excluded from the review due to weak construct validity (Kane et al. 2007; Jaeggi et al. 2010).”
Conceptualising and measuring working memory and its relationship to aphasia
Wright, H. H., & Fergadiotis, G. (2011) · Aphasiology · doi:10.1080/02687038.2011.604304 · Cited by 79
“, 2010; Kane et al., 2007; Oberauer, 2005; Roberts & Gibson, 2002). To explain the conflicting data in the literature it has been suggested that performance on the n-back could depend on processes that go beyond the traditional WM-related processes. Kane et al. (2007) attributed the n-back’s failure to measure WM to t…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe relational integration task explains fluid reasoning above and beyond other working memory tasks
Chuderski, A. (2013) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-013-0366-x · Cited by 71
Distinct functional and structural neural underpinnings of working memory
Owens, M. M., Duda, B., Sweet, L. H., & MacKillop, J. M. (2018) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.03.022 · Cited by 73
“WM, GMV, and cortical thickness are known to decline as an individual grows older (Lemaitre et al., 2012; Salthouse and Babcock, 1991), while ICV is commonly used as a covariate to account for differences in gray matter due to head and body size (Hansen et al., 2015).”
The Role of Working Memory in Levels of Situation Awareness
Gutzwiller, R. S., & Clegg, B. A. (2012) · Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making · doi:10.1177/1555343412451749 · Cited by 69
Clinical utility of the N-back task in functional neuroimaging studies of working memory
Jacola, L. M., Willard, V. W., Ashford, J. M., Ogg, R. J., Scoggins, M., Jones, M. M., Wu, S., & Conklin, H. M. (2014) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2014.953039 · Cited by 68
Takeuchi, H., Taki, Y., Nouchi, R., Sekiguchi, A., Hashizume, H., Sassa, Y., Kotozaki, Y., Miyauchi, C. M., Yokoyama, R., Iizuka, K., et al. (2015) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.06.058 · Cited by 71
“N-back tasks require an upload of memory and have rather unique psychological characteristics compared with that of other workingmemory tasks (Kane et al., 2007).”
Meidenbauer, K. L., Choe, K. W., Cardenas‐Iniguez, C., Huppert, T. J., & Berman, M. G. (2021) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.117795 · Cited by 71
The role of working memory abilities in lecture note-taking
Bui, D. C., & Myerson, J. (2014) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2014.05.002 · Cited by 68
The Collaborative Lithium Trials (CoLT): specific aims, methods, and implementation
Findling, R. L., Frazier, J. A., Kafantaris, V., Kowatch, R. A., McClellan, J., Pavuluri, M. N., Sikich, L., Hlastala, S. A., Hooper, S. R., Demeter, C., et al. (2008) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/1753-2000-2-21 · Cited by 67
The decline of verbal and visuospatial working memory across the adult life span
Cansino, S., Hernández-Ramos, E., Estrada-Manilla, C., Torres-Trejo, F., Martínez-Galindo, J. G., Ayala-Hernández, M., Gómez-Fernández, T., Osorio, D., Cedillo-Tinoco, M., Garcés-Flores, L., et al. (2013) · AGE · doi:10.1007/s11357-013-9531-1 · Cited by 79
Rietschel, J. C., Miller, M. W., Gentili, R. J., Goodman, R. N., McDonald, C. G., & Hatfield, B. D. (2012) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2012.02.022 · Cited by 72
Diestel, S., Cosmar, M., & Schmidt, K. (2013) · Work & Stress · doi:10.1080/02678373.2013.790243 · Cited by 77
Why is working memory performance unstable? A review of 21 factors
Blasiman, R. N., & Was, C. A. (2018) · Europe’s Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5964/ejop.v14i1.1472 · Cited by 65
“(2005) and Kane et al. (2005). Psychological Bulletin, 131, 72-75.”
Neuropsychological correlates of cognitive insight in schizophrenia
Orfei, M. D., Spoletini, I., Banfi, G., Caltagirone, C., & Spalletta, G. (2010) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2009.05.013 · Cited by 63
“back” taskswhich have beenwidely used inprevious research (Oliveri et al., 2001; Owen et al., 2005; Kane et al., 2007; Spalletta et al., 2008).”
BackgroundLanguage and Memory Improvements following tDCS of Left Lateral Prefrontal Cortex
Hussey, E. K., Ward, N., Christianson, K., & Kramer, A. F. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0141417 · Cited by 74
“Lures were defined as items that repeated in positions n+1, n+2, n-1, and n-2 [28,60].”
BackgroundIndividual differences in media multitasking and performance on the n-back
Ralph, B. C. W., & Smilek, D. (2016) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-016-1260-y · Cited by 73
“To reiterate, the n-back included a manipulation of memory load (2-back, 3-back), stimulus type (target, nontarget), and sequence type (lure, nonlure; as per Kane et al., 2007).”
MethodInfluentialDesign by nature: The influence of windows on cognitive performance and affect
Sharam, L. A., Mayer, K. M., & Baumann, O. (2022) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2022.101923 · Cited by 77
Campbell, K. L., Trelle, A. N., & Hasher, L. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0034109 · Cited by 62
Increased parietal activity after training of interference control
Oelhafen, S., Nikolaidis, A., Padovani, T., Blaser, D., Koenig, T. W., & Perrig, W. J. (2013) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2013.08.012 · Cited by 66
“This indicates the participants' sensitivity to interference in updating tasks since weak bindings of items with corresponding serial positions may hinder counteracting familiarity-based decisions (Kane et al., 2007; Schmiedek, Li, & Lindenberger, 2009; Szmalec et al., 2011).”
The contribution of working memory to fluid reasoning: Capacity, control, or both?
Chuderski, A., & Necka, E. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0028465 · Cited by 60
Dissociating frontoparietal brain networks with neuroadaptive Bayesian optimization
Lorenz, R., Violante, I. R., Monti, R. P., Montana, G., Hampshire, A., & Leech, R. (2018) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-018-03657-3 · Cited by 58
“Data entering the linear mixed-effect models were subject-level Bayesian predictions across the task parameters (Supplementary Fig.5,7).”
MethodWorking memory training improves visual short-term memory capacity
Schwarb, H., Nail, J., & Schumacher, E. H. (2016) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-015-0648-y · Cited by 55
Gupta, A., Siddhad, G., Pandey, V. K., Roy, P. P., & Kim, B. (2021) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s21206710 · Cited by 66
“The modern version of the n-back task [42] was designed using OpenSesame v 3.3.6 [43].”
MethodInfluentialLee, A. C. H., & Rudebeck, S. R. (2009) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2009.21396 · Cited by 59
Construct validity and reliability of working memory tasks for people with aphasia
DeDe, G., Ricca, M., Knilans, J., & Trubl, B. (2014) · Aphasiology · doi:10.1080/02687038.2014.895973 · Cited by 59
“Kane et al. (2007) suggested that low correlations between n-back and other working memory measures are due to task differences.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe Motivational Push of Games
Birk, M. V., Mandryk, R. L., & Atkins, C. (2016) · Annual Symposium on Computer-Human Interaction in Play · doi:10.1145/2967934.2968091 · Cited by 59
“Following [25, 53], hits and false alarms are used to compute sensitivity (dL) and bias (CL).”
MethodThe effect of threat on attentional interruption by pain
Moore, D., Keogh, E., & Eccleston, C. (2012) · Pain · doi:10.1016/j.pain.2012.09.009 · Cited by 57
The sexual dimorphic association of cardiorespiratory fitness to working memory in children
Drollette, E. S., Scudder, M. R., Raine, L. B., Moore, R. D., Pontifex, M. B., Erickson, K. I., & Hillman, C. H. (2015) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12291 · Cited by 62
Baniqued, P. L., Allen, C. M., Kranz, M. B., Johnson, K., Sipolins, A., Dickens, C., Ward, N., Geyer, A., & Kramer, A. F. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0142169 · Cited by 64
“Shipley abstraction Reasoning/Gf 5 1 [72] Matrix reasoning Reasoning/Gf 8 1 [73, 74] Paper folding Reasoning/Gf 9 1 [75] Spatial relations Reasoning/Gf 10 1 [76] Form boards Reasoning/Gf 11 1 [75] Letter sets Reasoning/Gf 12 1 [75] Digit symbol substitution Perceptual speed 1 1 [77] Pattern comparison Perceptual speed…”
MethodBender, A. R., & Raz, N. (2012) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.12.025 · Cited by 56
Yoon, J. A., Kong, I. J., Choi, J., Baek, J. Y., Kim, E. J., Shin, Y., Ko, M.-H., Shin, Y. B., & Shin, M. (2019) · Neural Plasticity · doi:10.1155/2019/7845104 · Cited by 55
Are Working Memory Training Effects Paradigm-Specific?
Holmes, J., Woolgar, F., Hampshire, A., & Gathercole, S. E. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01103 · Cited by 55
Frost, A., Moussaoui, S., Kaur, J., Aziz, S., Fukuda, K., & Niemeier, M. (2021) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2021.103398 · Cited by 56
Kliesch, M., & Pfenninger, S. E. (2021) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/modl.12696 · Cited by 55
A Latent Factor Analysis of Working Memory Measures Using Large-Scale Data
Waris, O., Soveri, A., Ahti, M., Hoffing, R. C., Ventus, D., Jaeggi, S. M., Seitz, A. R., & Laine, M. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01062 · Cited by 51
“One reason for this discrepancy might be related to the retrieval demands in the various tasks: the simple span, running memory, and complex span tasks all require free recall at the end of each list, whereas the n-back task requires speeded recognition (Kane et al., 2007).”
BackgroundPayne, B. R., & Stine‐Morrow, E. A. L. (2017) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2017.00256 · Cited by 57
A meta-analysis of the n-back task while driving and its effects on cognitive workload
von Janczewski, N., Wittmann, J., Engeln, A., Baumann, M. R. K., & Krauß, L. (2020) · Transportation Research Part F Traffic Psychology and Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.trf.2020.11.014 · Cited by 50
A behavioral study on tonal working memory in musicians and non-musicians
Ding, Y., Gray, K., Forrence, A. D., Wang, X., & Huang, J. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0201765 · Cited by 58
Comparing eye-tracking metrics of mental workload caused by NDRTs in semi-autonomous driving
Chen, W., Sawaragi, T., & Hiraoka, T. (2022) · Transportation Research Part F Traffic Psychology and Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.trf.2022.05.004 · Cited by 50
Auditory working memory predicts individual differences in absolute pitch learning
Hedger, S. C. V., Heald, S. L. M., Koch, R. E., & Nusbaum, H. C. (2015) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2015.03.012 · Cited by 53
Rac-Lubashevsky, R., & Frank, M. J. (2021) · PLoS Computational Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008971 · Cited by 46
Doherty, K. A., & Desjardins, J. L. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00721 · Cited by 50
Non-Interfering Effects of Active Post-Encoding Tasks on Episodic Memory Consolidation in Humans
Varma, S., Takashima, A., Krewinkel, S., van Kooten, M., Fu, L., Medendorp, W. P., Kessels, R. P. C., & Daselaar, S. M. (2017) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2017.00054 · Cited by 49
Kashfi, T. E., Sohrabi, M., Kakhki, A. S., Mashhadi, A., & Nooghabi, M. J. (2019) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.1177/0031512519836811 · Cited by 56
The Role of Self-Regulation in Voice Therapy
Vinney, L. A., & Turkstra, L. S. (2013) · Journal of Voice · doi:10.1016/j.jvoice.2013.01.003 · Cited by 48
Dobrakowski, P. P., & Łebecka, G. (2019) · Clinical EEG and Neuroscience · doi:10.1177/1550059419879020 · Cited by 57
“The performance quality of the test is also connected with fluid intelligence.(30) The basic variable in the n-back task is the performance quality.”
BackgroundHow does interpreting experience enhance working memory and short-term memory: A meta-analysis
Wen, H., & Dong, Y. (2019) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2019.1674857 · Cited by 57
van de Weijer‐Bergsma, E., Kroesbergen, E. H., Jolani, S., & Luit, J. E. H. V. (2015) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-015-0607-y · Cited by 46
“In other words, working memory can be distinguished from short-term memory, which only involves the temporary storage of information by the slave systems, whereas working memory involves the storage as well as processing of information.”
BackgroundGong, P., Zheng, A., Chen, D., Ge, W., Lv, C., Zhang, K., Gao, X., & Zhang, F. (2009) · Journal of Molecular Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/s12031-009-9205-8 · Cited by 47
“The relations between working memory and the efficiency of complex cognitive processes have been demonstrated in the numerous reports (Hegarty et al. 2000; Kane et al. 2007).”
BackgroundRecommendations for ICT use in Alzheimer's disease assessment: Monaco CTAD expert meeting
Robert, P. H., Konig, A., Andrieu, S., Bremond, F., Chemin, I., Chung, P. C., Dartigues, J. F., Dubois, B., Feutren, G., Guillemaud, R., et al. (2013) · The Journal of nutrition, health and aging · doi:10.1007/s12603-013-0046-3 · Cited by 46
Kim, H., & Hong, T. (2020) · Applied Energy · doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.115429 · Cited by 46
Acute effects of energy drinks in medical students
García, A., Romero, C., Arroyave, C., Giraldo, F., Sánchez, L., & Sánchez, J. (2017) · European Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1007/s00394-016-1246-5 · Cited by 45
Berggren, R., Nilsson, J., Brehmer, Y., Schmiedek, F., & Lövdén, M. (2020) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/pag0000439 · Cited by 50
Cognitive Ability: Does Working Memory Training Enhance Intelligence?
Conway, A. R. A., & Getz, S. J. (2010) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2010.03.001 · Cited by 48
Self-citationCognitive flexibility in preschool children with and without stuttering disorders
Eichorn, N., Marton, K., & Pirutinsky, S. (2017) · Journal of Fluency Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jfludis.2017.11.001 · Cited by 47
Designing and Interpreting Psychophysical Investigations of Cognition
Waskom, M., Okazawa, G., & Kiani, R. (2019) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2019.09.016 · Cited by 49
“For example, a subject may comfortably perform a 1-back or even 2-back task by maintaining each item in working memory but resort to using familiarity-based judgments—a long-term memory mechanism—when their capacity is exceeded (Kane et al., 2007).”
Towards Intelligent Data Analytics: A Case Study in Driver Cognitive Load Classification
Barua, S., Ahmed, M. U., & Begum, S. (2020) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci10080526 · Cited by 49
“The n-back task is a continuous performance task commonly used as an assessment of working memory load [12,13].”
MethodBrooks, S. J., O’Daly, O., Uher, R., Schiöth, H. B., Treasure, J. L., & Campbell, I. C. (2012) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2012.02.006 · Cited by 46
Atkins, S. M., Sprenger, A. M., Colflesh, G. J. H., Briner, T. L., Buchanan, J. B., Chavis, S. E., Chen, S.-Y., Iannuzzi, G. L., Kashtelyan, V., Dowling, E., et al. (2014) · Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1027/1618-3169/a000262 · Cited by 39
Self-citationZakariás, L., Keresztes, A., Marton, K., & Wartenburger, I. (2016) · Neuropsychological Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09602011.2016.1159579 · Cited by 46
“With the inclusion of lures (distractor items) we were able to target interference skills (e.g., Kane, Conway, Miura, & Col fl esh, 2007; Novick et al., 2013), and potentially recruit brain areas known to be involved in spoken sentence processing (e.g., LIFG, see Friederici, 2002 ; Thompson-Schill…”
BackgroundMethodDisentangling Working Memory Functioning in Mood States of Bipolar Disorder: A Systematic Review
Soraggi-Frez, C., Santos, F. H., Albuquerque, P. B., & Malloy‐Diniz, L. F. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00574 · Cited by 50
“Once n-back tasks and complex span tasks apparently evaluate different processes (Ribeiro et al., submitted; Kane et al., 2007), WM researches should consider the differences between tasks and how they affect the result explanations (Redick and Lindsey, 2013; Remoli and Santos, 2017).”
BackgroundToo Sick to Drive: How Motion Sickness Severity Impacts Human Performance
Smyth, J., Jennings, P., Mouzakitis, A., & Birrell, S. A. (2018) · IEEE International Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC) · doi:10.1109/itsc.2018.8569572 · Cited by 42
“See [24]) for N-Back.”
Xie, Y., Murphey, Y. L., & Kochhar, D. S. (2019) · IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Vehicles · doi:10.1109/tiv.2019.2960946 · Cited by 42
“In the n-back digital recall task, subjects are required to listen to a sequence of randomly selected single digits within the range of 0–9, and repeat the n-th digit appeared earlier to the last one [9].”
BackgroundAnticipatory Baseline Pupil Diameter Is Sensitive to Differences in Hearing Thresholds
Ayasse, N. D., & Wingfield, A. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02947 · Cited by 42
Adam, K. C. S., Doss, M. K., Pabon, E., Vogel, E. K., & de Wit, H. (2020) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/s41386-020-0690-3 · Cited by 45
Working Memory and Intelligence
Conway, A. R. A., Getz, S. J., Macnamara, B. N., & de Abreu, P. E. (2011) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511977244.021 · Cited by 42
Self-citationWorking memory training remains a work in progress.
Shipstead, Z., Hicks, K. L., & Engle, R. W. (2012) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2012.07.009 · Cited by 40
“It is becoming clear that individual differences in complex span and n-back performance are, at best, weakly related (Jaeggi, Buschkuehl, Perrig, & Meier, 2010; Kane, Conway, Miura, & Colflesh, 2007).”
van Ewijk, H., Weeda, W. D., Heslenfeld, D. J., Luman, M., Hartman, C. A., Hoekstra, P. J., Faraone, S. V., Franke, B., Buitelaar, J. K., & Oosterlaan, J. (2015) · Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2015.07.003 · Cited by 39
“Researchers have been discouraged from treating the two tasks as measuring the same construct, or from generalizing results on underlying brain circuitries from N-back studies to the concept of working memory span (Kane et al., 2007; Redick and Lindsey, 2013).”
BackgroundAuditory Discrimination Learning: Role of Working Memory
Zhang, Y.-X., Moore, D. R., Guiraud, J. A., Molloy, K., Yan, T., & Amitay, S. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0147320 · Cited by 46
Neural signatures for active maintenance and interference during working memory updating
Vilà‐Balló, A., Salmi, J., Soveri, A., Rodríguez‐Fornells, A., Lehtonen, M., & Laine, M. (2018) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2018.01.007 · Cited by 42
“Continuous updating prevents strong binding to an ongoing stimulus stream, leading to increased susceptibility to proactive interference (Kane et al., 2007; Schmiedek et al., 2009; Szmalec, Verbruggen, Vandierendonck, & Kemps, 2011).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialIntegrating Theories of Working Memory
Logie, R. H., Belletier, C., & Doherty, J. M. (2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198842286.003.0014 · Cited by 41
The domain-specific approach of working memory training
Peng, P., & Swanson, H. L. (2022) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2022.101035 · Cited by 45
Linares, R., Borella, E., Lechuga, M. T., Carretti, B., & Pelegrina, S. (2019) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0211321 · Cited by 38
Metadata
- Authors
- Kane, M. J., Conway, A. R. A., Miura, T. K., & Colflesh, G. J. H.
- Affiliations
- University of North Carolina at Greensboro (US)
- Princeton University (US)
- University of Illinois Chicago (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
- Published
- 2007-05
- Volume
- 33
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 615-622
- ISSN
- 0278-7393 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1285
- OpenAlex
- W1978600950
- Cited by
- 933
- References
- 40
- Citations by year
- 2026: 50 · 2025: 68 · 2024: 73 · 2023: 49 · 2022: 61 · 2021: 74 · 2020: 70 · 2019: 67 · 2018: 63 · 2017: 57 · 2016: 50 · 2015: 57 · 2014: 49 · 2013: 34 · 2012: 32
- FWCI
- 21.75
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- libres.uncg.edu
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- NC Digital Online Collection of Knowledge and Scholarship (The University of North Carolina at Greensboro) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Air Force Office of Scientific Research (F49620-00-1-131)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- n-back task, working memory, attentional control, construct validity, convergent validity, operation span, fluid intelligence, executive function
- MeSH terms
- Attention, Humans, Individuality, Intelligence, Memory, Short-Term, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Problem Solving, Psychomotor Performance, Reaction Time, Semantics, Serial Learning, Verbal Learning
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
