Working memory, attention control, and the N-back task: a question of construct validity
Open accessAbstract
The N-back task requires participants to decide whether each stimulus in a sequence matches the one that appeared n items ago. Although N-back has become a standard "executive" working memory (WM) measure in cognitive neuroscience, it has been subjected to few behavioral tests of construct validity. A combined experimental- correlational study tested the attention-control demands of verbal 2- and 3-back tasks by presenting n = 1 "lure" foils. Lures elicited more false alarms than control foils in both 2- and 3-back tasks, and lures caused more misses to targets that immediately followed them compared with control targets, but only in 3-back tasks. N-back thus challenges control over familiarity-based responding. Participants also completed a verbal WM span task (operation span task) and a marker test of general fluid intelligence (Gf; Ravens Advanced Progressive Matrices Test; J. C. Raven, J. E. Raven, & J. H. Court, 1998). N-back and WM span correlated weakly, suggesting they do not reflect primarily a single construct; moreover, both accounted for independent variance in Gf. N-back has face validity as a WM task, but it does not demonstrate convergent validity with at least 1 established WM measure.
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Stimuli presentation was pseudo-randomized to avoid the occurrence of lure trials.
“Stimuli presentation was pseudo-randomized to avoid the occurrence of lure trials (i.e., non-target letters that match a recent letter in the sequence but not the letter N-back), which are known to elicit more false alarms (FA) and misses than non-lure non-targets because of their familiarity and resemblance to targets (see Kane et al., 2007).”
From Working Memory Reloaded: Tyrosine Repletes Updating in the N-Back Task (2013) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
The N-Back Task Design section defines lure foils as recent-letter matches that are not n-back matches, and the Univariate Analyses of N-Back section reports more false alarms for lures than for control foils. It reports more misses for targets immediately following lures than for control targets in 3-back, not more misses on lure trials than on non-lure non-target trials. The citing authors’ pseudo-randomization is their own procedure, not a procedure attributed to Kane et al. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredBoth maintenance and disengagement matter for problem-solving, but their relative contribution could explain the different relations of complex span and n-back with fluid intelligence and their less-than-perfect correlation.
“Both maintenance and disengagement are important for problem-solving (e.g., Carpenter et al., 1990), but the relative contribution of each could be driving the different relationships of complex span tests and the n-back with fluid intelligence, as well as their less-than-perfect correlation with each other (e.g., Kane et al., 2007).”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
The Discussion (page unavailable in our copy) reports that n-back and complex span shared only 2%–5% of their variance and predicted largely independent variance in fluid intelligence. This supports their weak correlation and different relationships with intelligence. The paper does not attribute those differences specifically to the relative contributions of maintenance and disengagement; it instead discusses differences in retrieval and recognition demands. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredWM is an umbrella term encompassing diverse experimental paradigms, from maintenance of perceptual, spatial or verbal information to complex "n-back" and "span" tasks, with uncertain construct validity.
“WM is itself an umbrella term encompassing diverse experimental paradigms, from maintenance of perceptual, spatial or verbal information to complex “n-back” and “span” tasks, with uncertain construct validity (Kane, Conway, Miura, & Colflesh, 2007; Shallice & Cooper, 2011).”
From Strategic offloading of delayed intentions into the external environment (2015) · cites this paper as Kane, Conway, Miura, & Colflesh, 2007
The Abstract and Discussion report that n-back and working-memory span tasks correlate weakly, raising questions about whether they measure the same construct; the Article specifically questions n-back’s construct validity. The paper does not establish the broader description of working memory as an umbrella covering perceptual, spatial, and verbal maintenance paradigms, and it describes span tasks as extensively validated rather than casting equal doubt on both tasks. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe 2-back condition requires on-line monitoring and updating of working memory content, which is cognitively demanding.
“In conditions with n = 2 or higher (where the match is for the stimulus that appeared two or more items ago), this task requires the on-line monitoring and updating of WM content, which is known to be cognitively demanding (Kane et al., 2007).”
From Working Memory Reloaded: Tyrosine Repletes Updating in the N-Back Task (2013) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
N-back is an updating task that shows a substantial correlation with higher-level cognitive measures, including Matrix Reasoning.
“One of the most common tasks used in these WM training studies is the N-back, an updating task that correlates significantly with measures of higher-level cognition, such as Matrix Reasoning20–24.”
From Near transfer to an unrelated N-back task mediates the effect of N-back working memory training on matrix reasoning (2022) · cites this paper as [23]
Kane et al. (2007) found that two-back performance did not correlate significantly with operation span or Raven's matrices, while three-back correlated descriptively more strongly with Raven's than with operation span.
“Two-back performance did not correlate significantly with either measure, whereas three-back performance correlated descriptively more strongly with Raven's matrices than with operation span.”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
Kane et al. (2007) found that correlations between n-back and operation span ranged from nonsignificant to weak, with all rs at or below .22.
“Indeed, correlations between the n-back and operation span ranged from nonsignificant to weak (all rs ≤ .22).”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
Kane et al. (2007) found that operation span and n-back each accounted for unique variance in fluid intelligence, suggesting a dissociation.
“Furthermore, operation span and the n-back each accounted for unique variance in fluid intelligence, suggesting a dissociation between the two measures.”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
Kane et al. (2007) identified recall versus recognition as one candidate source of variance distinguishing these measures.
“Kane et al. (2007) identified recall versus recognition as one candidate.”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
The 2-back condition has higher cognitive load than the 0-back condition.
“Based on the cognitive load of the 2-back condition (20–22)”
From Dynamic reconfiguration of frontal brain networks during executive cognition in humans (2015) · cites this paper as [22]
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“Keywords: Cognitive training Fluid intelligence Working memory”
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“Michael Kane and his colleagues (Kane et al. 2007a) tested a large number of individuals on a battery of complex span tasks that included the operation span, reading span, and symmetry span.”
BackgroundInfluentialColzato, L. S., van den Wildenberg, W. P. M., Zmigrod, S., & Hommel, B. (2013) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-012-0415-2 · Cited by 256 · see citing works
“The observation that playing FPS games predicts performance on a relatively well-established diagnostic index of monitoring and updating of WM (Kane et al., 2007) provides support for the idea that video game experience is linked with enhancement in the monitoring and updating of task relevant…”
BackgroundWorking Memory Capacity and Fluid Intelligence: Maintenance and Disengagement
Shipstead, Z., Harrison, T. L., & Engle, R. W. (2016) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691616650647 · Cited by 238 · see citing works
Updating positive and negative stimuli in working memory in depression
Levens, S. M., & Gotlib, I. H. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/a0020283 · Cited by 248 · see citing works
“Furthermore, limiting the n-back task stimuli, which normally consist of a large array of letters (Kane et al., 2007), shapes (Nystrom et al.”
A meta-analysis of the relationship between anxiety and attentional control
Shi, R., Sharpe, L., & Abbott, M. (2019) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2019.101754 · Cited by 243 · see citing works
Kofler, M. J., Rapport, M. D., Bolden, J., Sarver, D. E., & Raiker, J. S. (2010) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-009-9357-6 · Cited by 239 · see citing works
“The distinction between the internal and external foci of attention is supported by recent evidence that performance on traditional visual attention tasks such as the n-back and continuous performance task (CPT) is unrelated to performance on working memory span tasks (Kane et al. 2007b).”
Get a grip: individual variations in grip strength are a marker of brain health
Carson, R. G. (2018) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2018.07.023 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
Is the N-Back Task a Valid Neuropsychological Measure for Assessing Working Memory?
Miller, K. M., Price, C. C., Okun, M. S., Montijo, H., & Bowers, D. (2009) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acp063 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
Burgess, G. C., Gray, J. R., Conway, A. R. A., & Braver, T. S. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/a0024695 · Cited by 231 · see citing works
“…fMRI scanning, participants engaged in a 3-back version of the n-back task, an extensively used paradigm in the neuroimaging literature (see Owen et al., 2005, for a meta-analysis of n-back neuroimaging studies) typically assumed to reflect WM and/or executive function (but see Kane et al., 2007).”
Self-citationThe Interruptive Effect of Pain on Attention
Moore, D. J., Keogh, E., & Eccleston, C. (2012) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2011.626865 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
“Although the n-back task is often considered to be a measure of working memory (eg, Jonides et al, 1997 ; Kane & Engle, 2002 ), the correlation between the n-back task and other working memory tasks is low (eg, Jaeggi, Buschkuehl, Perrig, & Meier, 2010 ; Kane, Conway, Miura, & Colflesh, 2007 ).”
The Regulatory Role of the Human Mediodorsal Thalamus
Pergola, G., Danet, L., Pitel, A., Carlesimo, G. A., Segobin, S. H., Pariente, J., Boris Suchan, A., Mitchell, A. S., & Barbeau, E. J. (2018) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2018.08.006 · Cited by 204 · see citing works
Yow, W. Q., & Li, X. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00164 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
“Finally, the n-back task has been shown to be a valid task measuring the updating of working memory (see Kane et al., 2007).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMedia multitasking in adolescence
Cain, M. S., Leonard, J. A., Gabrieli, J. D. E., & Finn, A. S. (2016) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-016-1036-3 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
Levin, H. S., Hanten, G., Roberson, G., Li, X., Ewing-Cobbs, L., Dennis, M., Chapman, S., Max, J. E., Hunter, J., Schachar, R., et al. (2008) · Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics · doi:10.3171/ped/2008/1/6/461 · Cited by 201 · see citing works
Scharinger, C., Soutschek, A., Schubert, T., & Gerjets, P. H. (2017) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2017.00006 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
“Additionally, we observed that behavioral performance measures correlated with changes in EEG alpha power of the N-back and the Ospan, yet not of the Dspan.”
BackgroundMethodDomain-general mechanisms of complex working memory span
Chein, J. M., Moore, A., & Conway, A. R. A. (2010) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.07.067 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
“All rights reserved.”
Self-citationTowards an Ontology of Cognitive Control
Lenartowicz, A., Kalar, D. J., Congdon, E. L., & Poldrack, R. A. (2010) · Topics in Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/j.1756-8765.2010.01100.x · Cited by 177 · see citing works
Strategic offloading of delayed intentions into the external environment
Gilbert, S. J. (2015) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2014.972963 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Favieri, F., Forte, G., & Casagrande, M. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02126 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
“The Digit Span Test (in particular the Backwards version) (Reynolds, 1997), and the N-Back Test (Kane et al., 2007) were used in various versions (see Table 3) to investigate differences in working memory performance.”
MethodGajewski, P. D., Hanisch, E., Falkenstein, M., Thönes, S., & Wascher, E. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02208 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Clearing the garden-path: improving sentence processing through cognitive control training
Novick, J. M., Hussey, E. K., Teubner-Rhodes, S. E., Harbison, J. I., & Bunting, M. F. (2013) · Language Cognition and Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/01690965.2012.758297 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
“…working memory span tasks*a category into which LNS and block span both fall*typically correlate only weakly with lure variants of n-back, demonstrating a divergence that may be linked to the cross-task asymmetry in conflictresolution demands (Kane et al., 2007; see also Jaeggi et al., 2008).”
BackgroundNormative data on the n-back task for children and young adolescents
Pelegrina, S., Lechuga, M. T., García-Madruga, J. A., Elosúa, M. R., Macizo, P., Carreiras, M., Fuentes, L. J., & Bajo, M. T. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01544 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
“The n-back is a different kind of WM measure that does not involve a processing-and-storing dual task and in which individuals are not asked to recall any information but to recognize it.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialKim, H., Hong, T., Kim, J., & Yeom, S. (2020) · Building and Environment · doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2020.107223 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
Ilieva, I. P., Hook, C. J., & Farah, M. J. (2015) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00776 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
“Studies were also excluded if the experimental procedure entailed sleep deprivation.”
Acker, F. (2008) · Judgment and Decision Making · doi:10.1017/s1930297500000863 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Reynolds, J. R., West, R., & Braver, T. (2009) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhn164 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
Shelton, J. T., Elliott, E. M., Hill, B. D., Calamia, M. R., & Gouvier, W. D. (2008) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2008.11.005 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
“Kane et al. (2007), on the other hand, used a recognition version of the task and did not find strong relationships between n-back performance and performance on traditional storage and processing measures.”
BackgroundThe case for an ecological approach to cognitive training
Moreau, D., & Conway, A. R. A. (2014) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2014.03.009 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Self-citationIndividual differences in executive function predict distinct eating behaviours
Allom, V., & Mullan, B. A. (2014) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2014.05.007 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
“In the current study an automated operation-span task (Kane et al., 2007; Turner & Engle, 1989) was used in which participants firstly indicated whether the answer to a math equation (e.”
MethodCharacterizing Attention with Predictive Network Models
Rosenberg, M. D., Finn, E. S., Scheinost, D., Constable, R. T., & Chun, M. M. (2017) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2017.01.011 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
“Aspects of executive control could be tested with change detection [90–92] or n-back tasks [93,94].”
Implicit sequence learning and working memory: Correlated or complicated?
Janacsek, K., & Németh, D. (2013) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2013.02.012 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Smoked Cannabis' Psychomotor and Neurocognitive Effects in Occasional and Frequent Smokers
Desrosiers, N. A., Ramaekers, J. G., Chauchard, É., Gorelick, D. A., & Huestis, M. A. (2015) · Journal of Analytical Toxicology · doi:10.1093/jat/bkv012 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Yang, D., Hong, K., Yoo, S.-H., & Kim, C.-S. (2019) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2019.00317 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Reporting and Interpreting Working Memory Performance in n-back Tasks
Meule, A. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00352 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
“As the n-back task has been criticized for lacking clear associations with other working memory tasks (Kane et al., 2007; Jaeggi et al., 2010), using more fine-grained analyses of n-back task performance beyond reporting reaction times and accuracy may, therefore, reveal clearer insights about its…”
MethodInfluentialCognitive training with casual video games: points to consider
Baniqued, P. L., Kranz, M. B., Voss, M. W., Lee, H., Cosman, J. D., Severson, J., & Kramer, A. F. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.01010 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Gerst, E. H., Cirino, P. T., Fletcher, J. M., & Yoshida, H. (2017) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2015.1120860 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Shelton, J. T., Elliott, E. M., Matthews, R. A., Hill, B. D., & Gouvier, W. D. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0019046 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Gender Differences in Multitasking Reflect Spatial Ability
Mäntylä, T. (2013) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797612459660 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Gerjets, P., Walter, C., Rosenstiel, W., Bogdan, M., & Zander, T. (2014) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2014.00385 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
“…research that predict learning outcomes very well (Daneman and Carpenter, 1980; Engle, 2002; Kornmann et al., submitted) but correlate only weakly with each other (Kane et al., 2007; Redick and Lindsey, 2013), indicating that different executive processes might be involved in task performance.”
BackgroundBarr, M. S., Farzan, F., Rusjan, P., Chen, R. E., Fitzgerald, P. B., & Daskalakis, Z. J. (2009) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/npp.2009.79 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
“…WM. Earlier studies that have examined the convergent validity between the N-back task and other WM measures, such as the operation span task (OSPAN), show correlations with lower WM loads (Shelton et al, 2007) and varied results with the 3-back condition (Shelton et al, 2007; Kane et al, 2007).”
ResultWorking memory in older adults declines with age, but is modulated by sex and education
Pliatsikas, C., Veríssimo, J., Babcock, L., Pullman, M. Y., Glei, D. A., Weinstein, M., Goldman, N., & Ullman, M. T. (2018) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/1747021818791994 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Orbitofrontal Contributions to Human Working Memory
Barbey, A. K., Koenigs, M. R., & Grafman, J. H. (2010) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhq153 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
“790 Orbitofrontal Contributions to Working Memory d Barbey et al. by guest on A pril 29, 2016 http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/ D ow nloaded from information in working memory (for experimental validation of the nback task in working memory, see Kane et al. 2007).”
BackgroundMethodHilbert, S., Nakagawa, T., Puci, P., Zech, A., & Bühner, M. (2014) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000223 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Yarkoni, T., & Braver, T. S. (2010) · Plenum series on human exceptionality · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1210-7_6 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
The influence of positive mood on different aspects of cognitive control
Martin, E. A., & Kerns, J. G. (2010) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2010.491652 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
“However, some evidence suggests that the N-back is only weakly correlated with the operation span working memory capacity task (Kane, Conway, Miura, & Colflesh, 2007 ).”
BackgroundSchmiedek, F., Lövdén, M., & Lindenberger, U. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01475 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
“ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE published: 23 December 2014 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01475 A task is a task is a task: putting complex span, n-back, and other working memory indicators in psychometric context”
ResultInfluentialWang, H., He, W., Wu, J., Zhang, J., Jin, Z., & Li, L. (2019) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2019.01.002 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Nash Unsworth, A. (2009) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2009.11.010 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
The Effects of Theta and Gamma tACS on Working Memory and Electrophysiology
Pahor, A., & Jaušovec, N. (2018) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2017.00651 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Ginestet, C. E., & Simmons, A. (2011) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.11.030 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
“Research in this area generally seeks to unveil the neural basis of the central executive system of working memory (Baddeley, 1998; D'Esposito et al., 1995; Kane et al., 2007).”
BackgroundSensorimotor, language, and working memory representation within the human cerebellum
Ashida, R., Cerminara, N. L., Edwards, R. J., Apps, R., & Brooks, J. C. W. (2019) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.24733 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Tsuchida, A., & Fellows, L. K. (2008) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2008.21172 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
“The latter finding agrees with a report that found little relationship between working memory span and n-back performance in healthy subjects (Kane, Conway, Miura, & Colflesh, 2007 ).”
ResultAging and n-Back Performance: A Meta-Analysis
Bopp, K. L., & Verhaeghen, P. (2018) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gby024 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Attention Selectively Reshapes the Geometry of Distributed Semantic Representation
Nastase, S. A., Connolly, A. C., Oosterhof, N. N., Halchenko, Y. O., Guntupalli, J. S., Castello, M. V. D. O., Gors, J. D., Gobbini, M. I., & Haxby, J. V. (2017) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhx138 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Glutamate in schizophrenia: Neurodevelopmental perspectives and drug development
Egerton, A., Grace, A. A., Stone, J. M., Bossong, M. G., Sand, M. S., & McGuire, P. K. (2020) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2020.09.013 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Stepankova, H., Lukavsky, J., Buschkuehl, M., Kopecek, M., Ripova, D., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2014) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0034913 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Yang, D.-L., Huang, R., Yoo, S.-H., Shin, M., Yoon, J. A., Shin, Y., & Hong, K. (2020) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2020.00141 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
“In this study, theN-back task was used to assess working memory (Kane et al., 2007).”
MethodEmotion processing facilitates working memory performance
Lindström, B., & Bohlin, G. (2011) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2010.527703 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
“This response rule required processing in addition to that of the original task, which should mainly tap familiarity-based recognition memory (Kane, Conway, Miura, & Colflesh, 2007 , but see Schmiedek, Hildebrandt, Lovden, Wilhelm, & Hildenberger, 2009 ).”
MethodRathore, A., & Lom, B. (2017) · Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1186/s13643-017-0514-7 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
“ments actually measure working memory relative, to say, attention control or other domains [63].”
Hofmeister, P., Casasanto, L. S., & Sag, I. A. (2012) · Language · doi:10.1353/lan.2012.0025 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Avery, E. W., Yoo, K., Rosenberg, M. D., Greene, A. S., Gao, S., Na, D. L., Scheinost, D., Constable, R. T., & Chun, M. M. (2019) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_01487 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Maula, H., Hongisto, V. O., Naatula, V., Haapakangas, A., & Koskela, H. (2017) · Indoor Air · doi:10.1111/ina.12387 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Complex span tasks and hippocampal recruitment during working memory
Faraco, C. C., Nash Unsworth, A., Langley, J. A., Terry, D., Li, K., Zhang, D., Liu, T., & Miller, L. S. (2010) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.12.033 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
“Proper performance on CWMS tasks requires a high degree of executive attentional-control (Conway et al., 2003; Engle et al., 1999a; Kane et al., 2007a) to switch between tasks and maintain attention on the task at hand.”
BackgroundKhat Use Is Associated with Impaired Working Memory and Cognitive Flexibility
Colzato, L. S., Ruiz, M. J., van den Wildenberg, W. P. M., & Hommel, B. (2011) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0020602 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Maula, H., Hongisto, V. O., Östman, L., Haapakangas, A., Koskela, H., & Hyönä, J. (2015) · Indoor Air · doi:10.1111/ina.12209 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Deldar, Z., Gevers‐Montoro, C., Khatibi, A., & Saidi, L. G. (2020) · AIMS neuroscience · doi:10.3934/neuroscience.2021001 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Context Memory in Korsakoff’s Syndrome
Kessels, R. P. C., & Kopelman, M. D. (2012) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-012-9202-5 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
“…et al. (2003) showed a deficit on the 2-back condition of the nback task, a test that may rely on the episodic buffer’s ability to maintain the temporal position across trials (Kessels et al. 2010) and that has been shown to be independent from the working memory slave system (Kane et al. 2007).”
BackgroundStrong genetic overlap between executive functions and intelligence.
Engelhardt, L. E., Mann, F. D., Briley, D. A., Church, J. A., Harden, K. P., & Tucker-Drob, E. M. (2016) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/xge0000195 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
A simultaneous examination of two forms of working memory training: Evidence for near transfer only
Minear, M., Brasher, F., Guerrero, C. B., Brasher, M., Moore, A., & Sukeena, J. (2016) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-016-0616-9 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
- Authors
- Kane, M. J., Conway, A. R. A., Miura, T. K., & Colflesh, G. J. H.
- Affiliations
- University of North Carolina at Greensboro (US)
- Princeton University (US)
- University of Illinois Chicago (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
- Published
- 2007-05
- Volume
- 33
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 615-622
- ISSN
- 0278-7393 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1285
- OpenAlex
- W1978600950
- Cited by
- 933
- References
- 40
- Citations by year
- 2026: 50 · 2025: 68 · 2024: 73 · 2023: 49 · 2022: 61 · 2021: 74 · 2020: 70 · 2019: 67 · 2018: 63 · 2017: 57 · 2016: 50 · 2015: 57 · 2014: 49 · 2013: 34 · 2012: 32
- FWCI
- 21.75
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- libres.uncg.edu
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- NC Digital Online Collection of Knowledge and Scholarship (The University of North Carolina at Greensboro) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Air Force Office of Scientific Research (F49620-00-1-131)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- n-back task, working memory, attentional control, construct validity, convergent validity, operation span, fluid intelligence, executive function
- MeSH terms
- Attention, Humans, Individuality, Intelligence, Memory, Short-Term, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Problem Solving, Psychomotor Performance, Reaction Time, Semantics, Serial Learning, Verbal Learning
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