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Working memory, attention control, and the N-back task: a question of construct validity
Open accessAbstract
The N-back task requires participants to decide whether each stimulus in a sequence matches the one that appeared n items ago. Although N-back has become a standard "executive" working memory (WM) measure in cognitive neuroscience, it has been subjected to few behavioral tests of construct validity. A combined experimental- correlational study tested the attention-control demands of verbal 2- and 3-back tasks by presenting n = 1 "lure" foils. Lures elicited more false alarms than control foils in both 2- and 3-back tasks, and lures caused more misses to targets that immediately followed them compared with control targets, but only in 3-back tasks. N-back thus challenges control over familiarity-based responding. Participants also completed a verbal WM span task (operation span task) and a marker test of general fluid intelligence (Gf; Ravens Advanced Progressive Matrices Test; J. C. Raven, J. E. Raven, & J. H. Court, 1998). N-back and WM span correlated weakly, suggesting they do not reflect primarily a single construct; moreover, both accounted for independent variance in Gf. N-back has face validity as a WM task, but it does not demonstrate convergent validity with at least 1 established WM measure.
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“Stimuli presentation was pseudo-randomized to avoid the occurrence of lure trials (i.e., non-target letters that match a recent letter in the sequence but not the letter N-back), which are known to elicit more false alarms (FA) and misses than non-lure non-targets because of their familiarity and resemblance to targets (see Kane et al., 2007).”
From Working Memory Reloaded: Tyrosine Repletes Updating in the N-Back Task (2013) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
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“Both maintenance and disengagement are important for problem-solving (e.g., Carpenter et al., 1990), but the relative contribution of each could be driving the different relationships of complex span tests and the n-back with fluid intelligence, as well as their less-than-perfect correlation with each other (e.g., Kane et al., 2007).”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“WM is itself an umbrella term encompassing diverse experimental paradigms, from maintenance of perceptual, spatial or verbal information to complex “n-back” and “span” tasks, with uncertain construct validity (Kane, Conway, Miura, & Colflesh, 2007; Shallice & Cooper, 2011).”
From Strategic offloading of delayed intentions into the external environment (2015) · cites this paper as Kane, Conway, Miura, & Colflesh, 2007
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In the citing paper
“In conditions with n = 2 or higher (where the match is for the stimulus that appeared two or more items ago), this task requires the on-line monitoring and updating of WM content, which is known to be cognitively demanding (Kane et al., 2007).”
From Working Memory Reloaded: Tyrosine Repletes Updating in the N-Back Task (2013) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
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“One of the most common tasks used in these WM training studies is the N-back, an updating task that correlates significantly with measures of higher-level cognition, such as Matrix Reasoning20–24.”
From Near transfer to an unrelated N-back task mediates the effect of N-back working memory training on matrix reasoning (2022) · cites this paper as [23]
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“Two-back performance did not correlate significantly with either measure, whereas three-back performance correlated descriptively more strongly with Raven's matrices than with operation span.”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
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“Indeed, correlations between the n-back and operation span ranged from nonsignificant to weak (all rs ≤ .22).”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
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“Furthermore, operation span and the n-back each accounted for unique variance in fluid intelligence, suggesting a dissociation between the two measures.”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
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“Kane et al. (2007) identified recall versus recognition as one candidate.”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
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“Based on the cognitive load of the 2-back condition (20–22)”
From Dynamic reconfiguration of frontal brain networks during executive cognition in humans (2015) · cites this paper as [22]
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“23,31,32”
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The effect of memory training on interpretation performance
Yenkimaleki, M., & van Heuven, V. J. (2016) · Leiden Repository (Leiden University) · Cited by 2
Ульянов, С. В., Ulyanov, S. V., Reshetnikov, A. G., Reshetnikov, A. G., Мамаева, А. А., & Mamaeva, A. A. (2017) · Международный журнал Программные продукты и системы · doi:10.15827/0236-235x.119.420-424 · Cited by 2
“обучения и адаптации системы управления (самой программы) к физиологическим особенностям оператора [6, 7].”
Is the strong desire to void a source of diverted attention in healthy adult volunteers?
Gibson, W., Morrison, R., Wagg, A., & Hunter, K. F. (2019) · Neurourology and Urodynamics · doi:10.1002/nau.24201 · Cited by 2
Rączy, K., & Korczyk, M. (2018) · Rocznik Kognitywistyczny · doi:10.4467/20843895rk.18.002.9756 · Cited by 2
“Although n-back is considered a standard ‘executive’ working memory (WM) measure in cognitive neuroscience, it is also seen as a possible additional correlate of intelligence [Kane et al., 2007].”
BackgroundWorking Memory Load Performance Based on Collocation of Virtual and Physical Hands
Tutar, A., & Peck, T. C. (2019) · IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces (VR) · doi:10.1109/vr.2019.8797797 · Cited by 2
Evaluating Memory and Cognition via a Wearable EEG System: A Preliminary Study
Miloulis, S.-T., Kakkos, I., Dimitrakopoulos, G. Ν., Sun, Y., Karanasiou, I. S., Asvestas, P. A., Ventouras, E.-C., & Matsopoulos, G. K. (2021) · Lecture notes of the Institute for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics and Telecommunications Engineering · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-70569-5_4 · Cited by 2
Eydi-Baygi, M., Aflakseir, A., Imani, M., Goodarzi, M. A., & Harirchian, M. H. (2022) · PubMed Central · doi:10.22088/cjim.13.3.607 · Cited by 2
“84, which shows the test's high reliability (51).”
BackgroundThe role of recognizability in modulating scene consistency effect
Wang, Y., Ma, W., & Yang, K. (2023) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-023-04730-x · Cited by 2
“Therefore, the naming process would be impeded due to the limited attention pool (Kane et al., 2007 ).”
Time sharing in working memory processing.
Barrouillet, P., Camos, V., Minamoto, T., Nishiyama, S., Chooi, W.-T., Morita, A., Logie, R. H., & Saito, S. (2023) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0001261 · Cited by 1
An Overview of the Effect of Stress on Working Memory
Yu, E. H. (2023) · Journal of Education Humanities and Social Sciences · doi:10.54097/ehss.v18i.10965 · Cited by 2
“Research in the past has also shown that the n-back task itself failed to demonstrate convergent validity with other WM performance tasks [17], which puts doubt on whether it is really a reliable method of assessment.”
BackgroundDetection of the Effects of Environmental Condition on Attention/Memory Using EEG Signals
Arinc, A., Akbuğday, B., Pehlivan, S., & Akan, A. (2023) · Medical Technologies Congress (TIPTEKNO) · doi:10.1109/tiptekno59875.2023.10359237 · Cited by 2
“During each condition, participants performed a n-back (n=2) task [19], which served as the cognitive task to evaluate their cognitive performance.”
MethodMun, C. J., Karoly, P., & Okun, M. A. (2017) · Clinical Journal of Pain · doi:10.1097/ajp.0000000000000569 · Cited by 2
Adjustment of cognitive control to the frequency of dual-task interference
Olszanowski, M., & Szostak, N. M. (2019) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2019.1635605 · Cited by 2
Grabner, R. H., & Stern, E. (2009) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1445344 · Cited by 2
“Even though the n-back task is considered the gold standard in neuroscience research, there is mixed empirical evidence on the question whether this task draws on the same cognitive resources as the well-established WM span tasks (Conway et al., 2005; Kane et al., 2007).”
BackgroundMoezzi, B., Lavrencic, L. M., Goldsworthy, M. R., Coussens, S. W., & Keage, H. A. D. (2019) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/625608 · Cited by 3
“The n-back tasks are suggested to test attentional control and executive function (Aalto et al. 2005; Kane et al. 2007; Owen et al. 2005).”
The Effects of Sleep Restriction on Biological, Psychological, and Neurocognitive Measures of Health
Lorenzetti, M. S. (2020) · NSUWorks (Nova Southeastern University) · Cited by 2
Upward socioeconomic status comparison temporarily hinders working memory: an exploratory studyPreprint
Šuran, T., Carnaghi, A., & Rumiati, R. I. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/2t9v5 · Cited by 2
Stable decoding of working memory load through frequency bands
Duleme, M., Perrey, S., & Dray, G. (2022) · Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17588928.2022.2026312 · Cited by 2
“Consequently, increasing the level of difficulty can lead to task interferences, such as lures or visual expectancy bias (Kane et al., 2007).”
BackgroundKiose, M. I., Izmalkova, A. I., & Kharlamova, T. G. (2022) · RESEARCH RESULT Theoretical and Applied Linguistics · doi:10.18413/2313-8912-2022-8-3-0-5 · Cited by 1
“, 2008) which is customarily used in memory tests (Kane et al., 2007; Farvardin et al., 2014) to identify the groups of participants who display differences in the capacity of working memory.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialCollins, C., Blundell, J., Huddlestone, J., & Harris, D. (2023) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-48038-6_22 · Cited by 1
Yang, H., Han, J.-Y., Wang, J., Duan, Y., & Jiang, J. (2024) · Experimental Gerontology · doi:10.1016/j.exger.2024.112515 · Cited by 1
“In our study, the value of N was predetermined as 1, 2, or 3, with higher N values indicating greater WM demands (Kane et al., 2007).”
BackgroundHorváth, D., & Tánczos, T. (2024) · Magyar Pszichológiai Szemle · doi:10.1556/0016.2024.00073 · Cited by 1
Sepúlveda-Palomo, M., del Río, D., Villalobos, D., & Fernández, S. (2024) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-024-09651-5 · Cited by 3
“There is substantial evidence of weak correlations between complex span and n-back tasks (Kane et al., 2007; Redick & Lindsey, 2013; Roberts & Gibson, 2002), even though both appear to capture different aspects of a shared WM construct (Schmiedek et al., 2009, 2014).”
Krisdathiwadh, P., Chaithirayanon, S., Kotchabhakdi, N., & Siripornpanich, V. (2024) · Applied Neuropsychology Child · doi:10.1080/21622965.2024.2424215 · Cited by 1
Hepdarcan, I., Çetınkaya, H., & Dural, S. (2024) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-024-01667-9 · Cited by 1
“The stimuli were presented in blocks, with each block containing eight target and 40 non-target stimuli (see Kane et al., 2007).”
Are Memory Updating Tasks Valid Working Memory Measures? A Meta-Analysis
Wang, C., Wang, J., Zeng, X., Yu, N. X., & Chen, T. (2025) · Lifespan development and mental health. · doi:10.70322/ldmh.2025.10003 · Cited by 1
Sun, Y.-K., Chan, M. H., Wang, D., & Wang, L. (2025) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-025-10251-3 · Cited by 1
“Students were presented with a sequence of letters (e.g., A, B, C, D, E, H, I, K, L, M, O, P, R, S, T) one by one on their laptops, each displayed for 500 ms followed by a 2500 ms pause represented by a black screen (Kane et al., 2007).”
The latent structure of working memory: A large sample factor model of working memory capacity
Hao, H., Williams, J. C., Tubiolo, P. N., Silver-Frankel, E., Bauer, K., Luceno, S. R., Chan, A. J., Zheng, Z. J., Bobchin, K., Kotov, R., et al. (2025) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-025-01310-3 · Cited by 1
“Furthermore, both types of tasks have been found to account for unique variances in fluid intelligence (Kane et al., 2007).”
InfluentialSelf-citationEbert, K. D. (2025) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2025.105628 · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Kane, M. J., Conway, A. R. A., Miura, T. K., & Colflesh, G. J. H.
- Affiliations
- University of North Carolina at Greensboro (US)
- Princeton University (US)
- University of Illinois Chicago (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
- Published
- 2007-05
- Volume
- 33
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 615-622
- ISSN
- 0278-7393 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1285
- OpenAlex
- W1978600950
- Cited by
- 933
- References
- 40
- Citations by year
- 2026: 50 · 2025: 68 · 2024: 73 · 2023: 49 · 2022: 61 · 2021: 74 · 2020: 70 · 2019: 67 · 2018: 63 · 2017: 57 · 2016: 50 · 2015: 57 · 2014: 49 · 2013: 34 · 2012: 32
- FWCI
- 21.75
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- libres.uncg.edu
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- NC Digital Online Collection of Knowledge and Scholarship (The University of North Carolina at Greensboro) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Air Force Office of Scientific Research (F49620-00-1-131)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- n-back task, working memory, attentional control, construct validity, convergent validity, operation span, fluid intelligence, executive function
- MeSH terms
- Attention, Humans, Individuality, Intelligence, Memory, Short-Term, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Problem Solving, Psychomotor Performance, Reaction Time, Semantics, Serial Learning, Verbal Learning
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