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Working memory, attention control, and the N-back task: a question of construct validity
Open accessAbstract
The N-back task requires participants to decide whether each stimulus in a sequence matches the one that appeared n items ago. Although N-back has become a standard "executive" working memory (WM) measure in cognitive neuroscience, it has been subjected to few behavioral tests of construct validity. A combined experimental- correlational study tested the attention-control demands of verbal 2- and 3-back tasks by presenting n = 1 "lure" foils. Lures elicited more false alarms than control foils in both 2- and 3-back tasks, and lures caused more misses to targets that immediately followed them compared with control targets, but only in 3-back tasks. N-back thus challenges control over familiarity-based responding. Participants also completed a verbal WM span task (operation span task) and a marker test of general fluid intelligence (Gf; Ravens Advanced Progressive Matrices Test; J. C. Raven, J. E. Raven, & J. H. Court, 1998). N-back and WM span correlated weakly, suggesting they do not reflect primarily a single construct; moreover, both accounted for independent variance in Gf. N-back has face validity as a WM task, but it does not demonstrate convergent validity with at least 1 established WM measure.
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“Stimuli presentation was pseudo-randomized to avoid the occurrence of lure trials (i.e., non-target letters that match a recent letter in the sequence but not the letter N-back), which are known to elicit more false alarms (FA) and misses than non-lure non-targets because of their familiarity and resemblance to targets (see Kane et al., 2007).”
From Working Memory Reloaded: Tyrosine Repletes Updating in the N-Back Task (2013) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
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“Both maintenance and disengagement are important for problem-solving (e.g., Carpenter et al., 1990), but the relative contribution of each could be driving the different relationships of complex span tests and the n-back with fluid intelligence, as well as their less-than-perfect correlation with each other (e.g., Kane et al., 2007).”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“WM is itself an umbrella term encompassing diverse experimental paradigms, from maintenance of perceptual, spatial or verbal information to complex “n-back” and “span” tasks, with uncertain construct validity (Kane, Conway, Miura, & Colflesh, 2007; Shallice & Cooper, 2011).”
From Strategic offloading of delayed intentions into the external environment (2015) · cites this paper as Kane, Conway, Miura, & Colflesh, 2007
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In the citing paper
“In conditions with n = 2 or higher (where the match is for the stimulus that appeared two or more items ago), this task requires the on-line monitoring and updating of WM content, which is known to be cognitively demanding (Kane et al., 2007).”
From Working Memory Reloaded: Tyrosine Repletes Updating in the N-Back Task (2013) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
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“One of the most common tasks used in these WM training studies is the N-back, an updating task that correlates significantly with measures of higher-level cognition, such as Matrix Reasoning20–24.”
From Near transfer to an unrelated N-back task mediates the effect of N-back working memory training on matrix reasoning (2022) · cites this paper as [23]
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“Two-back performance did not correlate significantly with either measure, whereas three-back performance correlated descriptively more strongly with Raven's matrices than with operation span.”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
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“Indeed, correlations between the n-back and operation span ranged from nonsignificant to weak (all rs ≤ .22).”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
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“Furthermore, operation span and the n-back each accounted for unique variance in fluid intelligence, suggesting a dissociation between the two measures.”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
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“Kane et al. (2007) identified recall versus recognition as one candidate.”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Kane et al., 2007
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“Based on the cognitive load of the 2-back condition (20–22)”
From Dynamic reconfiguration of frontal brain networks during executive cognition in humans (2015) · cites this paper as [22]
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Additional file 3 of Neutral and negative mood induction in executive tasks of working memory
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Additional file 4 of Neutral and negative mood induction in executive tasks of working memory
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Additional file 2 of Neutral and negative mood induction in executive tasks of working memory
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“Thus, in line with the WM conceptualization, the N-back task concurrently requires simple storage of infor - mation as well as active maintenance and manipulation of that information (Jonides et al., 1997 ; Kane et al., 2007a, b).”
Wardana, N. D., Enriquez‐Geppert, S., Deyn, P. P. D., Marsman, J.-B. C., Reesink, F. E., Aleman, A., & Ćurĉić‐Blake, B. (2026) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.1177/13872877251411478
“36 Here, participants were asked to identify if a letter was the same as the letter presented one time (1-back condition) or two times (2-back condition) before.”
Hwang, J., Liu, C., Winesett, S. P., Fettow, T., Shah, V. A., Chatterjee, S. A., Manini, T. M., Hass, C. J., Seidler, R. D., Ferris, D. P., et al. (2026) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2025.1644741
Information uncertainty influences learning strategy from sequentially delayed rewards
Maulhardt, S., Solway, A., & Charpentier, C. J. (2026) · PLoS Computational Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1013879
“Previous work has examined related phenomena: the effect of delay on memory [21], temporal preferences for rewards [22,23], and the subjective experience of waiting times [24].”
Tsigarides, J., Bowler, J. O., Dainty, J. R., Bagnall, A. J., & MacGregor, A. J. (2026) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-026-74975-6
EMBODIED POSTURE MODULATES AFFECTIVE STATES AND WORKING MEMORY EFFICIENCY
Annarumma, M., & Saggese, D. (2025) · Problems of Psychology in the 21st Century · doi:10.33225/ppc/25.19.07
Bray, N. W., Adriano, D. A. C., Grant, S., Kendall, K. D., Hill, M. D., Longman, R. S., Matar, A. A., ALGhasab, N. S., Mahdi, N., Afshar, E. E., et al. (2026) · Journal of Aging and Physical Activity · doi:10.1123/japa.2025-0148
Effects of Working Memory Capacity and Search Task Complexity on Cognitive Load
Jayawardena, G., Shi, L., & Jacek Gwizdka, A. (2026) · Conference on Human Information Interaction and Retrieval · doi:10.1145/3786304.3787871 · Cited by 1
“Similar to Robison & Garner [69], who modeled their equation after Kane et al., [43] and Snodgrass & Corwin [78], we computed 3 performance metrics: hit rate (H), false alarm rate (FA), and sensitivity ( 𝑑 ).”
Balancing Flow and Collaboration: Exploring Visual Noise Cancellation in Mixed Reality Workspace
Chen, X., Zhou, X., Jian, X., Zhou, L., Zhang, L., Sun, H., Qi, Q., Wang, J., & Wang, J. (2026) · ACM International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces (IUI) · doi:10.1145/3742413.3789114
“Drawing inspiration from previous work [46, 47, 65, 76], we focus on human cognitive abilities in sustained attention and working memory, which are measured using the Continuous Performance Task (CPT) [40] and the n-back task [36], respectively.”
Veinot, J., & Hashmi, J. A. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.02.28.708768
“The N-back working memory task is used in assessing working memory ability with fMRI-based neuroimaging [36,45,47,100].”
Metadata
- Authors
- Kane, M. J., Conway, A. R. A., Miura, T. K., & Colflesh, G. J. H.
- Affiliations
- University of North Carolina at Greensboro (US)
- Princeton University (US)
- University of Illinois Chicago (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
- Published
- 2007-05
- Volume
- 33
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 615-622
- ISSN
- 0278-7393 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1285
- OpenAlex
- W1978600950
- Cited by
- 933
- References
- 40
- Citations by year
- 2026: 50 · 2025: 68 · 2024: 73 · 2023: 49 · 2022: 61 · 2021: 74 · 2020: 70 · 2019: 67 · 2018: 63 · 2017: 57 · 2016: 50 · 2015: 57 · 2014: 49 · 2013: 34 · 2012: 32
- FWCI
- 21.75
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- libres.uncg.edu
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- NC Digital Online Collection of Knowledge and Scholarship (The University of North Carolina at Greensboro) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Air Force Office of Scientific Research (F49620-00-1-131)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- n-back task, working memory, attentional control, construct validity, convergent validity, operation span, fluid intelligence, executive function
- MeSH terms
- Attention, Humans, Individuality, Intelligence, Memory, Short-Term, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Problem Solving, Psychomotor Performance, Reaction Time, Semantics, Serial Learning, Verbal Learning
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