Experiences of depression: Theoretical, clinical, and research perspectives.

“Central to most contemporary theories of depression is the notion that stress can initiate cognitive and possibly biological processes that increase risk for the disorder (Beck, 1967; Blatt, 2004; Brown & Harris, 1978).”

“The association between child withdrawal and decreased maternal supportive presence lends support to theoretical positions that link depression across the lifespan with early disruptions in the mother’s holding function and the mother–infant reciprocity (Blatt, 2004; Stern, 1995).”

“Several contemporary theories have attempted to explain how life stress increases risk for depression by affecting socialenvironmental (e.g., Brown and Harris 1978), psychodynamic (e.g., Blatt 2004), and cognitive (e.g., Beck 1967) processes.”

“Males are substantially more likely to suffer from introjective depression and females from anaclitic depression (61).”

“An extensive body of research has documented theoretically expected relations between dependency and self-criticism and depression, coping strategies, and interpersonal functioning (for reviews, see Blatt, 2004; Zuroff, Mongrain, & Santor, 2004).”

“…depression on the basis of psychoanalysis and, more specifically, in terms of attachment theories (e.g., Bowlby, 1976; Ainsworth et al., 1978; Blatt, 2004; Bigelow et al., 2018), behavioral models (e.g., Skinner, 1953; Ferster, 1966; Lewinsohn, 1975), cognitive models (e.g., Seligman, 1975;…”

“Dependent individuals prefer opportunities to develop close and protective relationships over opportunities to develop positive self-concepts and, as a result, fear loss of love or abandonment above all other fears (Blatt, 2004).”

“…levels, by a distorted and one-sided emphasis on self-definition (Blatt, 2006, 2008; Blatt & Shichman, 1983).1 Again, considerable research evidence (e.g., Blatt, 2004, 2006, 2008; Blatt & Zuroff, 1992) supports the validity of this distinction of two primary configurations of psychopathology.”

“In previous research, self-criticism has, respectively, been linked to higher depressive symptoms in healthy and some clinical samples (Blatt, 2004).”

“On the one hand, (aspects of) self and interpersonal functioning have been theorized as dynamically related constructs (Blatt, 2004).”

“Blatt (2002, 2004) also speculated that sustained progress in effective psychotherapy results in a reactivation of the previously disrupted normal dialectic developmental interaction between relatedness and self-definition, such that anaclitic patients eventually become more agentic and assertive…”

“For instance, it seems that suppression of one’s true emotions, such as anger, is associated with mental ill-health (Blatt, 2004; Gross, 1999).”

“Self-criticism has mainly been investigated as a vulnerability risk factor for depression (Blatt, 2004; Zuroff, Mongrain, & Santor, 2004), but in recent years, a growing number of studies have shown that it plays an important role in other psychological disorders, such as social anxiety (Cox, Fleet, & Stein, 2004; Cox…”

“The self-criticism factor of the DEQ is highly stable, has high internal consistency,(24) and has shown good convergent and discriminant validity across a variety of samples.(7,15) In this study, coefficient alpha was not computed for DEQ self-criticism because the DEQ was not scored in the conventional fashion of sum…”

“At the same time, there is a vast and long-standing literature on individual differences in cognitive vulnerabilities—variables such as perfectionism/selfcriticism and excessive need for approval are well known to foster psychological ill-being (e.g., Antony et al. 1998; Blatt 2004; Blatt et al. 1995; Blatt and Zuroff…”

“…with dependency problems and submissive interpersonal styles provide higher alliance ratings early in treatment, suggesting that alliance ratings by dependent and submissive individuals may be artificially over-inflated (Bender, 2005; Blatt, 2004; Bornstein, 1993; Soygut, Nelson, & Safran, 2001).”

“The DEQ has been extensively studied and consistently demonstrates good convergent and discriminant validity (Blatt 2004).”

“In diverse theories, it is proposed that there are two fundamental personality dimensions that predispose individuals to maladjustment in general and depression in particular (e.g., Beck, 1983; Blatt, 1974, 2004).”

“The interpersonal style of sociotropic individuals is characterized by nonassertive, overly accommodating, and self-sacrificing behavior (Blatt, 2004).”

“This pattern of results implies that personality vulnerability variables such as dependency and self-criticism do affect the quality of interpersonal relationships thereby reducing or exacerbating individuals’ levels of depression (Daley et al., 1997; for a review, see Blatt, 2004).”

“The self‐criticism factor reflects high levels of perfectionism, strong need to achieve high standards and fear of failure, and is associated with the introjective depression subtype (Blatt, 2004; Blatt & Zuroff, 1992). The DEQ has very good psychometric properties as reported by Blatt (2004) and Blatt and Zuroff (199…”

“Research with the Perfectionism subscale of the DAS and related measures such as the Self-Criticism scale of the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (DEQ; Blatt, D’Afflitti, & Quinlan, 1976), has shown that self-critical perfectionism (SC-PFT) both confers vulnerability to depression (Blatt, 2004; Zuroff, Mongrain, &…”

“Fifth, our measures of alcohol and drug use may not have been sensitive enough, and the BRFSS does not include measures of other important risk factors for depression among women, including history of mental illness in the family (Blatt, 2004); reproductive events such as menstrual cycle, pregnancy, menopause (Nationa…”

“The emotional symptoms include continuous feelings of low mood, grief, emptiness, sorrow and frustration [44, 45].”

“For example, future studies could explore the moderating role of individuals’ dispositional mindfulness (Brown and Ryan 2003) or self-critical perfectionism (Blatt 2004) as both are likely to influence reactivity to need experiences.”

“Conversely, needy individuals are characterized by a sense of helplessness in meeting their own needs, and an intense reliance on other people to be content (Blatt, 2004).”

“Clinical research with depressed adult patients has indicated that elevated levels of the self-criticism factor at baseline are associated with poorer therapeutic outcome at termination of therapy and at the 3-month follow-up in brief treatments for depression.(96,98) In contrast, the dependent factor interfered with…”

“Blatt (2004) conceptualizes self-criticism as a maladaptive form of self-definition, characterized by negative cognitive appraisals of the self, guilt, and fear of loss of approval for failing to live up to standards (Blatt, 2004; Blatt & Zuroff, 1992).”

“Summaries of that literature are available in Blatt (2004, 2008), Luyten and Blatt (2013), and Zuroff, Santor, and Mongrain (2005).”

“Finally, other studies report that depressive styles such as self-critical and dependent (Blatt, 2004) will develop predispositions to stressors and show different responses for treatment (Dagnino et al., 2018), as well as personality vulnerabilities that are specific to each type of depressive…”

“2008), substance abuse (Blatt 2004) and social anxiety (Cox et al.”

“Furthermore, various researchers have proposed that irritable mood is a prodrome of full-blown depression (e.g., Fava and Tossani 2007), especially if other vulnerability factors, such as maladaptive personality traits (Blatt 2004; Blatt and Zuroff 1992), are involved.”

“…vs. external blame) and the way we evaluate, judge, condemn or accept, and support ourselves has a major impact on our coping, resilience, recovery, and perseverance (Blatt 2004; Ehret et al. 2015; Gilbert and Irons 2005; Mandel et al. 2015; Shahar 2015; Zuroff et al. 2004; Zuroff et al. 2005).”

“Anger not expressed outwardly may become directed at one’s self, contributing to the feelings of low self-worth and guilt that are common in depression (Blatt, 2004; Freud, 1917; Gross, 1999; Izard, 1972).”

“Recent research suggests that the personality dimension of self-criticism might be of particular importance in these relationships, given its well-demonstrated negative effects on interpersonal relationships and specifically romantic relationships (Shahar, 2015; Zuroff & Duncan, 1999) and its role in explaining vulner…”

“Although most scholars have examined the direct associations between parental control, autonomy support and children’s difficulties, findings from some studies suggest that other variables can serve an intervening role in these relations (Ahmad et al. 2013; Blatt 2004; Costa et al. 2014; Soenens et al. 2007, 2009, 201…”

“The DEQ has shown acceptable to good reliability and validity (Blatt, 2004).”

“These events involved intense fear of death or harm—processes that are more specific to PTSD [41] than to depression, which typically is precipitated by loss and grief or guilt [42].”

“Emerging adults who perceive parental APPC tend to develop depressive symptoms characterized by feelings of inferiority or guilt when they face experiences of failure in achievement-related areas (Blatt, 2004), and may exhibit anxiety linked to the fear of failure or of making mistakes.”

“…2007; Campos and Mesquita, 2014; Falgares et al., 2017a) and dependency (Bornstein and O’Neill, 2000) are significant risk factors for suicide risk and are influenced by dysfunctional early relationships, such as those with parents (Blatt, 2004; Campos et al., 2013; Falgares et al., 2017a).”

“…of psychological disorders, such as depression, eating disorders, complex trauma, social anxiety and personality disorders (e.g. Beck et al., 1979; Blatt, 2004; Dolhanty & Greenberg, 2009; Meares, Gerull, Stevenson, & Korner, 2011; Ogrodniczuk & Kealy, 2013; Paivio & Pascual-Leone, 2010; Pos &…”

“The questionnaire has good psychometric properties (Blatt, 2004 ; Luyten et al. 2007).”

“As such, the present findings provide initial evidence that the developmental dynamics proposed by Blatt (1974, 2004) may generalize across cultures.”

“and low levels of self-compassion are associated with psychopathology (Blatt 2004; Falconer et al. 2015; Shahar et al. 2012) while high levels of self-compassion and low levels of”

“…has been described as a personality trait that enhances people’s frustrations and anger toward themselves in reaction to failures and setbacks (Blatt, 2004; Gilbert et al., 2004; Gilbert and Irons, 2004) while in the meta-emotional problem patients only criticize themselves for having…”

“Depression is a common problem in this developmental process, and it is acknowledged to strongly influence adolescents’ relationship with their parents (Blatt, 2004).”

“He also noted that psychoanalytic concepts currently play only a minor role in contemporary research and treatment of PPD because it “has received little notice in the psychoanalytic and psychodynamic literature” (Blum, 2007, p. 46). Blum (2007) also noted a paucity of systematic empirical research on PPD from a psych…”

“The concept of dependency as a multifaceted structure also is reflected in a considerable body of research on depression (e.g., Blatt, 2004; Coyne & Whiffen, 1995; Dunkley, Blankstein, & Flett, 1997).”

“Self-criticism has been shown to be an important contributor to numerous psychological disorders (e.g., Blatt, 2004; Gilbert & Irons, 2005) and clinical experience suggests that a large proportion of counselling clients will suffer from some degree of the shame and fear which can result from…”

“Her depression is predominantly introjective in nature (Blatt, 2004).”

“…truism is that psychological engagement in a genuinely supportive and positive relationship with significant meaningful figures provides psychological support for the individual (Blatt, 2004; Bowlby, 1969–1980, Kohut, 1977; Mahler, Pine, & Bergmann, 1975; Mikulincer & Shaver, 2003; Slade, 2004).”

“…has the function of attenuating feelings of guilt, and of regaining the love of the superego through self-punishment (cf. also Abraham, 1911, 1924; Blatt, 2004; Bohleber, 2012; Campos et al., 2011; Freud, 1916–17; Jacobson, 1971; Kernberg, 2006; Klein 1935, 1940; Kohut, 1971, 1977; Rado, 1928,…”

“All three core psychotherapy modalities, cognitive (Beck, 1963), psychodynamic (Blatt, 2004), and experiential treatments such as emotion-focused therapy (EFT; Greenberg & Watson, 2006), identify self-criticism as an emotion schematic vulnerability to depression.”

“Studies using the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (9, 10) and similar instruments, such as the Sociotropy-Autonomy Scale (11), have identified two types of depression, one focused on interpersonal loss and feelings of abandonment (anaclitic depression) and the other on issues of self-worth (introjective depressio…”

“As no previous studies tested this hypothesized association (Blatt 2004), these findings primarily call for replication of studies using a similar design and sample.”

“…approach to study these issues is offered by theoretical conceptualizations of Blatt and colleagues (e.g. Blatt & Shichman, 1983; for a review, see Blatt, 2004) concerning the personality dimensions of self-criticism and dependency (Besser, Priel, & Wiznitzer, 2002; Besser, Priel, Flett, &…”

“They often strive for excessive achievement and perfection, are very demanding of themselves, and often achieve greatly but with little lasting satisfaction (Blatt, 1995, 2004).”

“Blatt’s two-polarities model of personality development (Blatt, 2004, 2008; Blatt & Blass, 1990; Blatt & Luyten, 2009, 2010; Luyten & Blatt, 2011) offers an integrative conceptual framework concerning normal and disrupted personality development that aids understanding of how the important changes…”

“…showing that self-criticism is a personality dimension that is implicated in vulnerability for a wide variety of disorders and psychological problems (Blatt, 2004, 2008; Luyten & Blatt, 2013), mainly through its influences on relationships (Mongrain, 1998; Shahar, 2013; Zuroff & Duncan, 1999).”

“In particular, this study focuses on the potential role of the personality dimensions of dependency and self-criticism (Blatt et al., 1976; Blatt, 2004, 2006), 2 personality dimensions that have been associated with vulnerability to PPD (see below; for an overview Besser et al., 2008a, b), in…”