Improving memory after interruption: Exploiting soft constraints and manipulating information access cost.
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Forgetting what one was doing prior to interruption is an everyday problem. The recent soft constraints hypothesis (Gray, Sims, Fu, & Schoelles, 2006) emphasizes the strategic adaptation of information processing strategy to the task environment. It predicts that increasing information access cost (IAC: the time, and physical and mental effort involved in accessing information) encourages a more memory-intensive strategy. Like interruptions, access costs are also intrinsic to most work environments, such as when opening documents and e-mails. Three experiments investigated whether increasing IAC during a simple copying task can be an effective method for reducing forgetting following interruption. IAC was designated Low (all information permanently visible), Medium (a mouse movement to uncover target information), or High (an additional few seconds to uncover such information). Experiment 1 found that recall improved across all three levels of IAC. Subsequent experiments found that High IAC facilitated resumption after interruption, particularly when interruption occurred on half of all trials (Experiment 2), and improved prospective memory following two different interrupting tasks, even when one involved the disruptive effect of using the same type of resource as the primary task (Experiment 3). The improvement of memory after interruption with increased IAC supports the prediction of the soft constraints hypothesis. The main disadvantage of a high access cost was a reduction in speed of task completion. The practicality of manipulating IAC as a design method for inducing a memory-intensive strategy to protect against forgetting is discussed.
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An increasing amount of cognitive offloading accelerates task processing but subsequently diminishes recall performance for visuospatial information.
“While an increasing amount of cognitive offloading (e.g., in conditions with low temporal costs relative to conditions with high temporal costs) accelerates task processing (Morgan et al., 2009; Waldron et al., 2007), it subsequently diminishes recall performance for visuospatial information (Morgan et al., 2009, 2013; Waldron et al., 2007).”
From Consequences of cognitive offloading: Boosting performance but diminishing memory (2021) · cites this paper as Morgan et al., 2009
The present finding replicates and extends previous results by Morgan et al. (2009; Morgan et al., 2013; Waldron et al., 2007) on longer retention intervals exceeding working memory maintenance and on naturalistic object stimuli.
“This finding replicates and extends previous results reported by Morgan et al. (2009; see also Morgan et al., 2013; Waldron et al., 2007) on longer retention intervals exceeding working memory maintenance as well as on stimuli depicting naturalistic objects (rather than coloured squares).”
From Consequences of cognitive offloading: Boosting performance but diminishing memory (2021) · cites this paper as Morgan et al., 2009
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Morgan, P. L., Williams, C. E., Ings, F. M., & Hughes, N. (2017) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2017.1329324 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationDesigning Interfaces that Encourage a More Effortful Cognitive Strategy
Morgan, P. L., & Patrick, J. (2010) · Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting · doi:10.1177/154193121005400429 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Price is Right: A High Information Access Cost Facilitates Category Learning
Wood, M. J., Fry, M., & Blair, M. R. (2010) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Borghouts, J. W., Soboczenski, F., Cairns, P. A., & Brumby, D. P. (2015) · Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting · doi:10.1177/1541931215591130 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Yang, X. J., Park, T., Wickens, C. D., & Helander, M. G. (2014) · Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting · doi:10.1177/1541931214581182 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Increasing information access cost to protect against interruption effects during problem solving
Morgan, P. L., Patrick, J., & Patrick, T. (2010) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationBöing, S., de Zwart, B., Brink, A. F. T., Nijboer, T. C. W., & der Stigchel, S. V. (2024) · Visual Cognition · doi:10.1080/13506285.2025.2484523 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The rise and fall of memories: Temporal dynamics of visual working memory
Sahakian, A., Gayet, S., Paffen, C. L. E., & der Stigchel, S. V. (2025) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-025-01718-9 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Risko, E. F., & Kelly, M. O. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-15754-7.00014-6 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
A framework for unpacking cognitive benefits of distributed complex visual displays.
Jang, J., & Schunn, C. D. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000022 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Consequences of Cognitive Offloading: Boosting Performance But Diminishing MemoryPreprint
Grinschgl, S., Papenmeier, F., & Meyerhoff, H. S. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/s7wbg · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Stable tendencies in spontaneous working memory usage during flexible behaviour
Kumle, L., Li, A., Kovoor, J., Rock, A. G., Hesselink, E., Jones, E., Brosnan, M., Nobre, A. C., & Draschkow, D. (2026) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-026-02955-y · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Williams, C. E., Hodgetts, H. M., Morey, C. C., Macken, W. J., Jones, D. M., Zhang, Q., & Morgan, P. L. (2020) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-50732-9_80 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
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Unterbrechungen von Sitzphasen im Berufsalltag
Füzéki, E., Kutscher, M., Vogt, L., & Banzer, W. E. (2014) · Zentralblatt für Arbeitsmedizin Arbeitsschutz und Ergonomie · doi:10.1007/s40664-014-0046-0 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Designing the Interface to Encourage More Cognitive Processing
Patrick, J., Morgan, P. L., Tiley, L., Smy, V., & Seeby, H. (2014) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-07515-0_26 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationWilliams, C. E., Morgan, P. L., Christopher, G., Zook, N., & Hoskins, R. (2019) · Advances in intelligent systems and computing · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-19135-1_9 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationThe effects of task complexity on performance in constraint satisfaction design
Smy, V. (2013) · ORCA Online Research @Cardiff (Cardiff University) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Investing in brain-based memory leads to decreased use of technology-based memoryPreprint
Weis, P. P., & Wiese, E. (2018) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/847sp · Cited by 1 · see citing works
A Novel Approach to Cognitive Engineering: Manipulating Access Cost
Morgan, P. L., Smy, V., Seeby, H., & Patrick, J. (2013) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-39473-7_87
Self-citationGetting Interrupted? Design Support Strategies for Learning Success in M-Learning Applications
Bhandari, U., & Chang, K. (2017) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-58559-8_4
Abdulhabib, A. A. A., & Al-Dhaafri, H. S. (2018) · Journal of Management Research · doi:10.5296/jmr.v10i3.13104
AbudlHabib, A. A. A., & Al-Dhaafri, H. S. (2018) · International Business Research · doi:10.5539/ibr.v11n10p21
The role of active perception and naming in sameness comparison
Dubova, M., & Moskvichev, A. (2025) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-025-03046-1
Ou, C., & Chiossi, F. (2023) · OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints)
Seiler, V., Stangl, F. J., & Riedl, R. (2026) · Lecture notes in information systems and organisation · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-08489-7_21
Underused but not lost: adaptive working memory usage in agingPreprint
Shalev, N., Atias, L., Kumle, L., Nobre, A. C., & Draschkow, D. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-10487563/v1
- Authors
- Morgan, P. L., Patrick, J., Waldron, S. M., King, S. L., & Patrick, T.
- Affiliations
- Cardiff University (GB)
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied
- Published
- 2009
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 291-306
- ISSN
- 1076-898X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2192
- OpenAlex
- W2047238661
- Cited by
- 58
- References
- 88
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 5 · 2015: 4 · 2014: 5 · 2013: 5 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 6.53
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- eprints.uwe.ac.uk
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UWE Research Repository (UWE Bristol) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- ORCA Online Research @Cardiff (Cardiff University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Ministry of Defence (DTC112)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Information Systems and Management › Personal Information Management and User Behavior
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- information access costs, interruptions, forgetting, prospective memory, working memory
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Analysis of Variance, Attention, Female, Humans, Male, Neuropsychological Tests, Photic Stimulation, Psychomotor Performance, Reaction Time, Mental Recall, Serial Learning, Time Factors
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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