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Individual differences in boys’ and girls’ timing and tempo of puberty: Modeling development with nonlinear growth models
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Pubertal development is a nonlinear process progressing from prepubescent beginnings through biological, physical, and psychological changes to full sexual maturity. To tether theoretical concepts of puberty with sophisticated longitudinal, analytical models capable of articulating pubertal development more accurately, we used nonlinear mixed-effects models to describe both the timing and tempo of pubertal development in the sample of 364 White boys and 373 White girls measured across 6 years as part of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. Individual differences in timing and tempo were extracted with models of logistic growth. Differential relations emerged for how boys' and girls' timing and tempo of development were related to physical characteristics (body mass index, height, and weight) and psychological outcomes (internalizing problems, externalizing problems, and risky sexual behavior). Timing and tempo are associated in boys but not girls. Pubertal timing and tempo are particularly important for predicting psychological outcomes in girls but only sparsely related to boys' psychological outcomes. Results highlight the importance of considering the nonlinear nature of puberty and expand the repertoire of possibilities for examining important aspects of how and when pubertal processes contribute to development.
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“For example, in girls, earlier pubertal timing and more rapid pubertal tempo (relative to same-age, same-sex peers) is associated with higher rates of depressive disorders in particular, as well as substance use disorders, eating disorders, and antisocial behavior.(30–32)”
From Puberty Initiates Cascading Relationships Between Neurodevelopmental, Social, and Internalizing Processes Across Adolescence (2021) · cites this paper as [30]
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“An accelerated tempo of puberty has been associated with mental and physical health problems, including increased risk of substance use (Arim et al, 2011) and both internalizing and externalizing problems in girls (Marceau et al., 2011).”
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Khadilkar, V. V., Khadilkar, A. V., Arya, A., Ekbote, V. H., Kajale, N., Parthasarathy, L., Patwardhan, V. G., Phanse, S., & Chiplonkar, S. A. (2019) · Indian Pediatrics · doi:10.1007/s13312-019-1461-2 · Cited by 41
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“Regarding sex-based differences, females entered puberty earlier than males, which is consistent with extensive research and established developmental norms (e.g., Lee, 1980; Marceau et al., 2011; Susman et al., 2010).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialFoley, J. E., Ram, N., Susman, E. J., & Weinraub, M. (2018) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2018.07.017 · Cited by 40
Growing Up or Growing Old? Cellular Aging Linked With Testosterone Reactivity to Stress in Youth
Drury, S. S., Shachet, A., Brett, Z. H., Wren, M. E., Esteves, K. C., Shirtcliff, E. A., Phan, J., Mabile, E., & Theall, K. P. (2014) · The American Journal of the Medical Sciences · doi:10.1097/maj.0000000000000299 · Cited by 41
“Research finds that pubertal timing is more relevant for girls, whereas pubertal tempo (ie, the rate at which an individual progresses through puberty) is more relevant for boys in terms of the sensitivity to early stress, health risk outcomes(40,43,60) and testosterone changes.(28,61) This interpretation also fits wi…”
BackgroundHerda, T. J., Ryan, E. D., Kohlmeier, M., Trevino, M. A., Gerstner, G. R., & Roelofs, E. J. (2018) · Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports · doi:10.1111/sms.13256 · Cited by 39
The Stability of Perceived Pubertal Timing Across Adolescence
Cance, J. D., Ennett, S. T., Morgan‐López, A. A., & Foshee, V. A. (2011) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-011-9720-0 · Cited by 37
Puberty and the Evolution of Developmental Science
Worthman, C. M., Dockray, S., & Marceau, K. (2019) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.12411 · Cited by 40
Olson, L., Mash, L. E., Linke, A. C., Fong, C., Müller, R., & Fishman, I. (2020) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361320938194 · Cited by 36
“…lacked measures on pubertal status and did not control for menarche/menstrua tion in girls, and therefore, we could not rule out the poten tial confound of these differential sex effects on brain organization and FC (Klapwijk et al., 2013; Lisofsky et al., 2015; Marceau et al., 2011; Tanner, 1962).”
BackgroundMethodProfiling intra- and inter-individual differences in brain development across early adolescence
Bottenhorn, K. L., Cardenas‐Iniguez, C., Mills, K. L., Laird, A. R., & Herting, M. M. (2023) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2023.120287 · Cited by 40
“…differences in brain outcomes are associated with physical and hormonal changes related to puberty (Dai and Scherf, 2019; Goddings et al., 2014; Herting and Sowell, 2017; Marceau et al., 2011; Vijayakumar et al., 2018), which also interact with sex-and age-related differences in neurodevelopment.”
The effects of puberty and its hormones on subcortical brain development
Vijayakumar, N., Youssef, G. J., Allen, N. B., Anderson, V. A., Efron, D., Mundy, L. K., Patton, G. C., Simmons, J. G., Silk, T. J., & Whittle, S. (2021) · Comprehensive Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.cpnec.2021.100074 · Cited by 37
“It is also important to consider inter-individual differences in pubertal maturation such as tempo – the rate of progression through pubertal stages, or the rate of hormonal increases [29].”
BackgroundUrine bisphenol A and pubertal development in boys
Wang, Z., Li, D., Miao, M., Liang, H., Chen, J., Zhou, Z., Wu, C., & Yuan, W. (2016) · International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health · doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2016.10.004 · Cited by 34
Steinberg, D. B., Simon, V. A., Victor, B. G., Kernsmith, P. D., & Smith‐Darden, J. P. (2019) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-019-1414-9 · Cited by 34
Childhood adversity and accelerated reproductive events: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Ding, W.-Q., Yuxiang, X., Kondracki, A. J., & Sun, Y. (2023) · American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology · doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2023.10.005 · Cited by 36
Miller, J. D., Sterczala, A. J., Trevino, M. A., & Herda, T. J. (2018) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00675.2017 · Cited by 31
“The majority of the children, however, would likely have been placed into the 1st Tanner stage because they were 10 yr of age (Marceau et al. 2011).”
BackgroundPostnatal dexamethasone exposure and lung function in adolescents born very prematurely
Harris, C., Bisquera, A., Zivanovic, S., Lunt, A. C., Calvert, S., Marlow, N., Peacock, J. L., & Greenough, A. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0237080 · Cited by 31
Puberty and transdiagnostic risks for mental health
Mendle, J., Beam, C. R., McKone, K. M. P., & Koch, M. K. (2020) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.12552 · Cited by 34
Raffington, L. (2024) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-024-00239-5 · Cited by 29
“Since girls begin and complete pubertal development earlier than boys 60,61 , sex differences in MPSs of biological aging can further inform associations with pubertal maturation.”
BackgroundChahal, R., Kirshenbaum, J., Ho, T., Mastrovito, D., & Gotlib, I. (2020) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2020.100899 · Cited by 30
“…females (M = 11.11 years), t (150.70) = 4.71, p < .0001; this age difference was expected given that males and females were recruited in the parent study to be in early stages of puberty, and puberty-related physical development is evident earlier in females than in males (Marceau et al., 2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialYang, J., Zhang, S., Lou, Y., Long, Q., Liang, Y., Xie, S., & Yuan, J. (2018) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2017.00660 · Cited by 29
“…period, is accompanied by prominent physiological (e.g., sex hormone changes and menstruation), physical (e.g., secondary sex characters and height) and psychosocial (e.g., gender role stereotyping) changes (Patton and Viner, 2007; Blakemore et al., 2010; Marceau et al., 2011; Guyer et al., 2014).”
BackgroundPrince, C., Joinson, C. J., Kwong, A. S. F., Fraser, A., & Heron, J. (2023) · Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences · doi:10.1017/s2045796023000707 · Cited by 31
“There is considerable variation in the age at onset of puberty (Marceau et al. , 2011), and girls who experience an earlier puberty than their peers are at greater risk of various adverse psychosocial outcomes, including greater depressive symptoms (Mendle et al. , 2007; Skoog et al. , 2016).”
BackgroundChildhood Adversity and Pubertal Development Among Puerto Rican Boys and Girls
Suglia, S. F., Chen, C., Wang, S., Cammack, A. L., April-Sanders, A., McGlinchey, E. L., Kubo, A., Bird, H., CANINO, G. J., & Duarte, C. S. (2020) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0000000000000817 · Cited by 28
“Tempo refers to the pace at which children progress through pubertal developmental stages (1) and has been infrequently studied among both boys and girls.”
BackgroundInfluentialSex-Specific Associations Between Trauma Exposure, Pubertal Timing, and Anxiety in Black Children
Stenson, A. F., Michopoulos, V., Stevens, J. S., Powers, A. D., & Jovanović, T. (2021) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2021.636199 · Cited by 30
Interdisciplinary Work Is Essential for Research on Puberty: Complexity and Dynamism in Action
Susman, E. J., Marceau, K., Dockray, S., & Ram, N. (2019) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.12420 · Cited by 27
Polygenic Influences on Pubertal Timing and Tempo and Depressive Symptoms in Boys and Girls
Horvath, G., Knopik, V. S., & Marceau, K. (2019) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.12502 · Cited by 26
“, breast development and pubic hair) when there are repeated assessments of puberty (Marceau et al., 2011).”
InfluentialBarendse, M. E. A., Simmons, J. G., Patton, G. C., Mundy, L. K., Byrne, M. L., Seal, M. L., Allen, N. B., & Whittle, S. (2019) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2019.04.018 · Cited by 28
Genetic Influences on Pubertal Development and Links to Behavior Problems
Corley, R. P., Beltz, A. M., Wadsworth, S. J., & Berenbaum, S. A. (2015) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10519-015-9719-5 · Cited by 30
“…with physical features (self report or exams by health professionals), adrenarche was seen to occur later than gonadarche (Beltz et al. 2014; Marceau et al. 2011; Paus et al. 2010; Shirtcliff et al. 2009), but adrenal hormones rise earlier than gonadal hormones (reviewed in Styne and…”
InfluentialWhy and Under What Contextual Conditions Do Early-Maturing Girls Develop Problem Behaviors?
Skoog, T., & Stattin, H. (2014) · Child Development Perspectives · doi:10.1111/cdep.12076 · Cited by 27
Gaschler, R., Progscha, J., B, K. S. A., Ram, N., & Merim Bilalić, A. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00923 · Cited by 26
“However, such gains in potential to learn might for many players no longer compensate for the physical and social changes faced during puberty (Marceau et al., 2011; Hollenstein and Lougheed, 2013), at the end of adolescence, during secondary education, family formation or labor force participation.”
BackgroundWiner, J. P., Parent, J. M., Forehand, R., & Breslend, N. L. (2015) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-015-0318-0 · Cited by 30
“However, these findings for boys have been much less consistent than for girls (e.g., Ge et al. 2003; Marceau et al. 2011; Rudolph et al. 2014).”
Metadata
- Authors
- Marceau, K., Ram, N., Houts, R. M., Grimm, K. J., & Susman, E. J.
- Affiliations
- Duke University (US)
- University of California, Davis (US)
- Pennsylvania State University (US)
- Venue
- Developmental Psychology
- Published
- 2011-09
- Volume
- 47
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 1389-1409
- ISSN
- 0012-1649 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-0599
- PMC
- PMC3928626
- OpenAlex
- W1967329472
- Cited by
- 389
- References
- 82
- Citations by year
- 2026: 31 · 2025: 36 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 39 · 2022: 29 · 2021: 23 · 2020: 74 · 2019: 32 · 2018: 27 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 12 · 2012: 7
- FWCI
- 15.51
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- Developmental Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (cooperative agreement 5U10HD025460-18; 5U10HD025447-18; 5U10HD025420-19; 5U10HD025456-18; 5U10HD025445-19; 5U01HD033343-14; 5U10HD025451-19; 5U10HD025430-18; 5U10HD025449-18; 5U10HD027040-18; 5U10HD025455-18)
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH077874-04)
- National Institute on Aging (RC1-AG035645)
- National Science Foundation (DRL-0815787)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Reproductive Medicine › Hypothalamic control of reproductive hormones
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Adolescent Sexual and Reproductive Health
- Keywords
- pubertal timing, pubertal tempo, pubertal development, individual differences, sex differences, nonlinear growth models, logistic growth, body mass index, internalizing problems, externalizing problems, sexual risk behavior, longitudinal development
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Psychology, Adolescent, Anthropometry, Child, Female, Humans, Individuality, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Models, Biological, Predictive Value of Tests, Puberty, Sexual Behavior, Sex Characteristics, Logistic Models, Nonlinear Dynamics, Adolescent Development
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